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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 



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BARNARD'S COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



A TREATISE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION 



CONTAINING COPIOUS EXERCISES 



THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE, CLASSIFICATION, ANALYSIS, PARSING, RULES 
• OF SYNTAX, FALSE SYNTAX, AND PUNCTUATION, ARRANGED 
IN A SUITABLE FORM FOR 

DICTATION EXEEOISES; 



EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL AND BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE, 



ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF THE ACTIVE, PASSIVE, AND PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF 
THE VERB, AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF PARAGRAPHS AND SENTENCES. 



BY 



HENRY BARNARD. 




SAN FRANCISCO: 

BARNARD AND BROTHERS 

1880. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, 

By HENRY BARNARD, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



INTRODUCTION". 



The object of this work is three-fold; first, to reduce to prac- 
tice the principles of English Grammar; second, to convert 
what has always been a disagreeable and repulsive study into 
an attractive and pleasing exercise; third, to improve the class- 
ification and definitions, systematize the work of instruction, 
and render effectual the efforts of the teacher. 

Part I. is chiefly devoted to the transposition of Sentences 
in the Active, Passive, and Progressive Forms, structure of 
Kelative Clauses, Infinitives, Participles, and variety of expres- 
sion as used in English Composition. 

Part II. embraces all the Definitions that are necessary to be 
known in order to command a thorough knowledge of the Eng- 
lish Language and its structure. 

Part III. contains a series of Exercises in Parsing. Most of 
the sentences are of difficult construction, and the lessons will 
serve as models for similar work. 

Part IV. treats of Analysis and Synthesis, a knowledge of 
which is quite as essential as that of Parsing, if not more im- 
portant. It also contains the complete Eules of Syntax, and 
the Exercises in False Syntax are most thorough and complete. 

Part V. is devoted to the Eules of Spelling and general prin- 
ciples of Orthography. 

Part VI. presents numerous examples of Correspondence. 
Most of the letters are written in several forms. The advan- 
tage of using the Passive Form in preference to the Active is 
thus shown; and the mode of suppressing the egotistical ex- 
pressions in which the Pronoun " I" appears is illustrated. 

How to Use this Text-book. 
There are two methods of conducting the Exercises that are 
more effectual than any other. The first is to give them as 



iv INTRODUCTION. 

Dictation Exercises, and the second to use them in the form of 
Written Lessons. The following is a description of the two 
methods of employing them: 

The Written Lessons. 
For private instruction the Written Lessons may be prefera- 
ble. After writing the preceding half of any lesson on the left 
page in a blank book, the text-book should be closed and laid 
aside. The transpositions, or corresponding sentences, should 
tben be written on sheets of paper or slates; and if, on comparing 
them with the text-book, they are found to be correct, they 
should be copied into the blank book on the opposite page. 
But for class-room work, the most desirable way, for many rea- 
sons, is to use the sentences for 

Dictation Exercises. 

The teacher will select the preceding of two corresponding- 
exercises and pronounce each sentence as if it were to be writ- 
ten. Instead of writing what has just been dictated, however, 
the class should be required to write what is contained on the 
succeeding page, which will require some previous study. If 
this is doubted or disputed, select such a page as the eighteenth, 
and without allowing the transpositions upon page nineteen to 
be seen, use Exercises XXV., XXVI., and XXVII. as a test; 
or, take one of the letters in Part VI. for a trial. After each 
Dictation Exercise an oral recitation should be conducted, and 
original examples required from the class similar to those of the 
lesson. The slates or papers should be exchanged and cor- 
rected by the pupils themselves, under the teacher's directions. 

Though at first sight they may appear very simple, the im- 
portance of these Exercises, as a means of becoming familiar 
with all the Moods and Tenses in both the Active and the Pas- 
sive Forms, and as a Spelling Lesson, will become apparent 
after one or two trials, not only with the intermediate grades, 
but even in advanced classes. 

Description of the Exercises. 
On page 3 only the simple Tenses have been employed, re- 
quiring be in the Passive. No change should be permitted in 
the modifying words of the Subject or the Object. 



INTRODUCTION. v 

Page 5 requires the use of been, another variation of the 
Verb to be, and consists of the Perfect Tenses. 

Another part of the Verb to be has been selected for page 7, 
and the Singular and Plural forms, "was and "were, are alone 
employed. 

We find on page 9 the Singular and Plural forms of the 
Present Tense, is and are. 

The Preposition most commonly required is by, but others 
are interspersed where more suitable. 

Pronouns make their appearance for the first time on pages 
10 and 11, illustrating the change in spelling. 

It will be found that most pupils over ten years of age have 
already acquired a sufficient knowledge of the leading Defini- 
tions, and that what they lack is practice. Lessons may be 
assigned from Part II., however, as soon as the Definitions are 
needed by the class. 

Page 13 contains a promiscuous arrangement of the simple 
and Perfect Tenses. Regular Verbs being chiefly employed. 

Irregular Verbs become more frequent on page 15. 

Some of the sentences on page 16 have no Passive Form, the 
Verbs being Intransitive. When the Passive is wanting, the 
sentence dictated by the teacher should be written by the class; 
but they must determine for themselves whether it has a Pas- 
sive Form or not. 

On page 19 the reconstruction is more difficult, as the Ante- 
cedent must be mentioned before the Pronoun. 

Page 20 consists entirely of the Interrogative form. 

Compound Subjects are introduced on page 22. 

Compound Objects distinguish page 24. 

Page 26 is characterized by longer sentences. 

Some of the sentences on page 28 refer to preceding ones. 

On pages 32 and 34 the Tenses of the Indicative Mood are 
all used in consecutive order. Many other sentences should 
now be required, all arranged in the same manner. 

The Potential Mood is fully represented on page 36. 

The class must not be informed whether there is any Passive 
Form or not. They should simply be instructed to write the 
Active or Common, as dictated, when they can not supply the 



vi INTRODUCTION. 

Passive, on the pages 'following 36, where we also find Ad- 
verbs and Adverbial Phrases. 

Page 44 introduces Inseparable Prepositions. 

The Progressive Form first appears on page 47, and is con- 
tinued up to page 53. 

When page 55 is to be written, the dictation must be from 
page 54, and page 56, with the Progressive, must also be dic- 
tated from page 54. After completing page 62, continue the 
same exercises with other Verbs. 

On page 63 the four sentences must be written by dictating 
any one of them. Those Forms that are wanting must be so 
marked. These may be continued to any desired extent. 

From page 65 to page 76 the Complex Sentences must be 
written from the dictation of the Simple ones that precede 
them. 

The Simple Sentences on page 78 must be written from the 
dictation of the preceding Complex ones on page 77. 

Page 80, with Simple Kelative Pronouns, must be written at 
one Exercise, from the dictation of page 79, and page 81 from 
page 80; while page 83 must be written from the dictation of 
page 82, and page 84 from page 83. 

Pages 85, 86, 87, and 88 may be deferred until after the 
Pules of Syntax in Part IV. shall have been studied. 

The Definitions in Part II. should not be required to be com- 
mitted to memory in successive lessons. It will be found best 
to begin by using the Parsing Exercises and studying the Defi- 
nitions as required. To this end only one Part of Speech 
should be considered at once, as on page 143 and the following- 
six pages. Copious exercises of this kind should be selected 
from the sentences found in other parts of the book before 
taking up the difficulties presented in such examples as are con- 
tained in Part III. 

All the lessons in Part III. should be well prepared at home. 
At recitation, all books must be laid aside and the words of the 
lesson written on the left margin of the blackboard. Each 
successive point, with the reason, should be stated, calling on 
each member of the class for only one statement at a time. The 
teacher may write as the pupils recite, or call upon each one, as 
his statement shall be made, to do the writing. 



INTRODUCTION. vii 

In commencing Analysis , which is found in Part IV. , conduct 
a number of lessons after the method illustrated on page 194. 
Then use page 199 and the four that follow, disposing of the 
sentences, after they have been composed from the material 
given, in the same manner as on pages 196, 197, and 198. More 
advanced classes should begin at page 204. A sufficient num- 
ber of sentences have been completely analyzed to serve as mod- 
els, and these lessons can be indefinitely extended. 

The False Syntax may be used for Dictation Exercises, by 
dictating the incorrect sentences, which are to be written cor- 
rectly; or, if used for written lessons at home, the incorrect 
sentence should be followed by the words should be, and these 
by the correct sentence, the whole forming one distinct para- 
graph by itself; and each subsequent pair may be arranged 
similarly. A colon is used immediately after the words should 
be, and a capital letter should follow the colon. 

The exercises in Punctuation are correctly punctuated. In 
dictation, do not dictate the points. 

Part V. may be used altogether for dictation. Pronounce 
twenty words at each lesson to be written in blank books or 
slates. Make corrections by exchange of books, allowing the 
scholars to correct each other's errors by striking out incor- 
rectly spelled words, as you spell for the class. Kequest each 
one to keep a list containing only the words that shall have 
been stricken out, written both correctly and incorrectly, and 
carry it constantly in the pocket-book, to be studied during 
leisure moments. All will soon be interested in these exercises. 

Part VI. will not only furnish many valuable Dictation Exer- 
cises, but also serve as models for correspondence. Contents 
of letters should be mapped out, and the scholars required to 
write the same in proper form, properly addressed. They may 
even correspond with each other or with friends. 

It has been the aim of the author to make a marked improve- 
ment in the definitions; how far he has succeeded it remains for 
the experienced teacher to judge. Difficulties and trials that 
would perhaps be hard to describe are constantly recurring, and 
it is the object of this volume to make everything so plain and 
perspicuous that these annoyances shall be so infrequent as to 
be no longer a source of trouble. The following will illustrate 



viii INTRODUCTION. 

a scene that must be of almost daily occurrence in every school- 
room. The sentences are to be written only as required in the 
explanation : 

1. The horse ran. 

2. The horse ran away. 

3. The cow died. 

4. The man went. 

5. The merchant talked. 

6. The horse disappeared yesterday. 

7. His father came home last night. 

8. His father brought home last night. 

9 . His father brought a gun home last night. 
10. His father came a gun home last night. 

(Write No. 1 on the blackboard.) Did the horse run any- 
thing? Yes, sir; he ran a race. (Write No. 2.) Well, did he 
run away anything? Yes, sir; he ran aivay the buggy. (Write 
No. 3.) Did the cow die anything? Yes, sir, I think she did. 
What did she die? She died a natural death. (How aggra- 
vating! Write No. 4.) What did the man go? He went a jour- 
ney. (How persistent ! Write No. 5.) Did the merchant talk 
anything? Yes, sir; lie probably talked business. (Still obsti- 
nate. Write No. 6.) What did the horse disappear ? He dis- 
appeared yesterday. (Now you have him.) And when did he 
disappear ? Yesterday. Well, what did he disappear ? He 
disappeared himself. (Provoking, is it not? Write No. 7.) 
What did he come? He came home. (It will soon culminate. 
Write No. 8.) Does this sentence tell what he brought home ? 
No, sir. Is it complete as it is? No, sir; you must put some- 
thing after " home." (Now it appears to dawn upon their be- 
nighted vision. Write No. 9.) What did he bring home ? A 
gun. What did he come home? Nothing. (Write No. 10.) 
Would it be proper to say that he came a gun home last night ? 
No, sir. Who can tell me the difference between came and 
brought? Hands up! Sam ? He could bring something, but he 
could not come any thirty. Charlie ? Brought can have the name 
of something written after it, but came can not, Willie ? Brought 
can have an object. Yes, that is correct. And any Verb like 
brought is said to be .'. . . Transitive, because it is capable of 
having. . . .an object after it. Sarah, repeat that. 



PART I. 



THE PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



Embracing Active or Common, Passive, Progressive, and Emphatic Forms; 
Simple Sentences, with Simple and Compound Subjects and Predicates; Com- 
plex Sentences with Relative Clauses; the use of Simple and Compound Eela 
tive Pronouns; construction of Infinitives and Participles; Idioms of the 
English Language; and the correction of False Syntax. 

TO BE USED AS WRITTEN EXERCISES, OR EOR DICTATION, ACCOMPANIED BY 
ORAL RECITATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS, ACCORDING TO THE DEFINITIONS OF 

Part II. 



2 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. I. 
A book should contain no errors. 
This man will buy a watch. 
Children should obey parents. 
That boy will bring the books. 
The tree may produce cherries. 
My sister could receive the letters. 
These people can provide the money. 
Every girl must write these words. 
Any boy might win the race. 
His father shall send a messenger. 

EX. II. 

Your dog may eat that meat. 

My pencil should make better marks. 

The second drawer must contain his knife. 

His key might unlock my drawer. 

The janitor will unlock all the doors. 

Such a lecture would accomplish much good. 

Vice might contaminate an angel. 

This announcement will secure a good attendance. 

The teacher will correct our mistakes. 

Each student should examine the lesson. 

EX. III. 
Conductors on this line must admit no dogs. 
This hot weather may produce rain. 
Everybody must pay the admission fee. 
All should preserve the utmost silence. 
Your report "will surprise the community. 
Such reading will produce no good result. 
This treatment may remove the difficulty. 
Any one may bring contributions. 
Few men can attain distinction. 
This sentence must terminate the lesson. 

See p. 54 for the Active Form in full. Also, assign a lesson for study from 
sec. 15, p. 115, for the liule for formation of the Passive .Form. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
PASSIVE FOEM. 

To "be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. I. 
No errors should be contained in a book. 
A ivalch will be bought by this man. 
Parents should be obeyed by children. 
The books will be brought by that boy. 
Cherries may be produced on the tree. 
The letters could be received by my sister. 
The money can be provided by these people. 
These words must be written by every girl. 
The race might be won by any boy. 
A messenger shall be sent by his father. 

EX. II. 

That meat may be eaten by your dog. 

Better marks should be made by my pencil. 

His knife must be contained in the second drawer. 

My drawer might be unlocked with his key. 

All the doors will be unlocked by the janitor. 

Much good would be accomplished by such a lecture. 

An angel might be contaminated by vice. 

A good attendance will be secured by this announcement . 

Our mistakes "will be corrected by the teacher. 

The lesson should be examined by each student. 

EX. III. 
No dogs must be admitted by conductors on this line. 
Rain may be produced by this hot iveather. 
The admission fee must be paid by everybody. 
The utmost silence should be preserved by all. 
The community will be surprised at your report. 
No good result will be produced by such reading. 
The difficulty may be removed by this treatment. 
Contributions may be brought by any one. 
Distinction can be attained by few men. 
The lesson must be terminated by this sentence. 

See page 55 for the Passive Form in full. Also, study this page by apply- 
ing the Rule for Passive Form on page 115, in Section 15. 



4 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. IV. 
This boy has studied the lesson. 
Robert had paid the money. 
Your brother has killed our dog. 
The children have seen many strange things. 
Every man will have made a payment before night. 
A child could have read the ivords. 
Two payments would have cancelled the dtebt. 
Our garden should have produced flowers. 
Your father must have built a new house. 
All the people have heard the report. 

EX. V. 
His enemies have injured his business. 
That/re might have destroyed our house. 
This child has torn my new booh. 
The teacher had punished the child. 
Some one might have prevented the accident. 
Every one would have bought clothing. 
The workmen could have made many changes. 
Such information must have disappointed the men. 
The miners have discovered rich gold fields. 
That company has levied another assessment. 

EX. VI. 
James had already paid three premiums. 
His brother could have saved his life. 
That man must have bought another horse. 
The enemy could have gained a victory. 
Your uncle may have "written a letter. 
Several ladies had collected the money. 
Bobbers "would have plundered all the people. 
Our men "will have completed the ivork. 
The officer had discharged all the soldiers. 
That storm must have destroyed all the ivheat. 

The Rule for Passive Form, on p. 115, Sec. 15, will show that the word 
''been" is substituted for "be," used on the preceding page. This Rule 
should be carefully studied. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 5 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. IV. 
The lesson has been studied by this boy. 
The money had been paid by Robert. 
Our dog has been killed by your brother. 
Many strange things have been seen by the children. 
Before night a payment will have been made by every man. 
The words could have been read by a child. 
The debt would have been cancelled by two payments. 
Flowers should have been produced in our garden. 
A new house must have been built by jour father. 
The report has been heard by all the people. 

EX. V. 
His business has been injured by his enemies. 
Our house might have been destroyed by that^re. 
My new book has been torn by this child. 
The child had been punished by the teacher. 
The accident might have been prevented by some one. 
Clothing would have been bought by every one. 
Many changes could have been made by the workmen. 
The men must have been disappointed by such information. 
Kich gold fi elds have been discovered by the miners. 
Another assessment has been levied by that company. 

EX. VI. 
Three premiums had already been paid by James. 
His life could have been saved by his brother. 
Another horse must have been bought by that man. 
A victory could have been gained by the enemy. 
A letter may have been written by your uncle. 
The money had been collected by several ladies. 
All the people -would have been plundered by robbers. 
The work -will have been completed by our men. 
All the soldiers had been discharged by the officer. 
All the wheat must have been destroyed by that storm. 

The Preposition most generally required in forming the Passive is "by." 
Any other suitable Preposition, however, may be substituted, according to 
the sense. 



6 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. VII. 
The teacher encouraged the boy. 
My employer received seventeen letters. 
This exercise required greater care. 
The company suffered great losses. 
The intense heat evaporated all the water. 
A thief stole several of my chickens. 
This man found seventeen dollars. 
Another man lost some valuable horses. 
My tooth caused excessive pain. 
His drawer contained all the books. 

EX. VIII. 
That boy broke my best slate. 
The girds picked the cherries. 
An engineer used some of our oil. 
Three policemen made the charges. 
Some passing teamsters observed the occurrence. 
My neighbor effected some important changes. 
A particular friend gave the invitation. 
Friends invited friends. 
The people then possessed no power. 
Kings governed the people at that time. 

EX. IX. 
A policeman arrested the prisoner. 
The citizens called several meetings. 
The committee transacted much business. 
That company built many locomotives. 
A skillful architect designed our house. 
My dentist extracted five teeth to-day. 
The servant filled the wrong lamp. 
No one heard my remarks. 
One century witnessed a vast change. 
Each man produced three witnesses. 

The auxiliary verbs " was" and "were" will be required in changing these 
sentences to the Passive Form, as the Pule on p. 115, sec. 15, will show. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 7 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. VII. 
The boy was encouraged by the teacher. 
Seventeen letters "were received by my employer. 
Greater care -was required by this exercise. 
Great losses were suffered by the company. 
All the water "was evaporated by the intense heat. 
Several of my chickens "were stolen by a thief. 
Seventeen dollars were found by this man. 
Some valuable horses "were lost by another man. 
Excessive pain was caused by my tooth. 
All the books were contained in his drawer. 

EX. VIII. 

My best slate "was broken by that boy. 

The cherries "were picked by the girls. 

Some of our oil "was used by an engineer. 

The charges "were made by three policemen. 

The occurrence "was observed by some passing teamsters. 

Some important changes "were effected by my neighbor. 

The invitation was given by a particular friend. 

Friends were invited by friends. 

No power "was then possessed by the people. 

At that time the people were governed by kings. 

EX. IX. 
The prisoner v*ras arrested by a policeman. 
Several meetings were called by the citizens. 
Much business "was transacted by the committee. 
Many locomotives "were built by that company. 
Our house "was designed by a skillful architect. 
Five teeth "were extracted to-day by my dentist. 
The wrong lamp "was filled by the servant. 
My remarks "were heard by no one. 
A vast change was witnessed in one century. 
Three witnesses were produced by each man. 

Compare these Verbs with the illustrations on pp. 55 and 60. When the 
subject is singular, "was" must be used; when plural, use "were." 



8 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOBM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. X. 
His father employs seventeen servants. 
My brother receives reliable information. 
All the people read the news daily. 
A thief steals articles of value. 
Every diligent boy studies the lesson well. 
Each boy makes many friends. 
Sick men take medicine. 
Medicine cures sick men. 
Sometimes medicine kills sick men. 
Another boy neglects the lesson. 

EX. XL 
A good sponge absorbs water readily. 
Sharp knives sharpen our pencils. 
Our farm produces an abundant crop. 
Your sister sings all the latest songs. 
The pastor delivers a short sermon. 
Short sermons satisfy the people best. 
His sermons please our folks too well. 
A skillful lawyer defends the prisoner. 
Flattering promises delude many. 
Our garden produces beautiful flowers. 

EX. XII. 
Bees continually collect honey. 
Green grass covers the hillside. 
"Warm showers promote vegetation. 
That boy catches all these birds. 
Their friends reject the offer. 
This little circumstance displeases the people. 
My suggestion reverses his decision. 
Some people excel others. 
All the boys know the hour of dismissal. 
Those two boys often strike each other. 

These sentences require the use of the auxiliary Verbs "are" and "is. 
The lUile on p. 115, sec. 15, must be well studied by the class. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 9 

PASSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. X. 
Seventeen servants are employed by his father. 
Reliable information is received by my brother. 
The news is daily read by all the people. 
Articles of value are stolen by a thief. 
The lesson is well studied by every diligent boy. 
Many friends are made by each boy. 
Medicine is taken by sick men. 
Sick men are cured by medicine. 
Sick men are sometimes killed by medicine. 
The lesson is neglected by another boy. 

EX. XL 
Water is readily absorbed by a good sponge. 
Our pencils are sharpened with sharp knives. 
An abundant crop is produced on our farm. 
All the latest songs are sung by your sister. 
A short sermon is delivered by the pastor. 
The people are best satisfied with short sermons. 
Our folks are too well pleased with his sermons. 
The prisoner is defended by a skillful lawyer. 
Many are deluded by flattering promises. 
Beautiful flowers are produced in our garden. 

EX. XII. 

Honey is continually collected by bees. 

The hillsides are covered "with green grass. 

Vegetation is promoted by warm showers. 

All these birds are caught by that boy. 

The offer is rejected by their friends. 

The people are displeased at this little circumstance. 

His decision is reversed by my suggestion. 

Some people are excelled by others. 

The Ziour of dismissal is known to all the &o?/s. 

Those two boys are often struck by each other. 

Employ the auxiliary Verb "is" when the subject is singular, and "are" 
when it is plural. The illustrations on pp. 54, 55, 60 and 61 should be well 
studied. 



10 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XIII. 
He struck me. 
You observed it. 
They saw us. 
I had offended him. 
We shall accompany them. 
It displeased her. 
She will remember you. 
Thou hast created its. 
They will pay you. 
We cannot remunerate them. 

EX. XIV. 
I would have prevented it. 
It has produced a profound sensation. 
Intelligent men will not believe it. 
You "will lose all your money. 
This accident -will delay its. 
I cannot solve this example. 
We saw the eclipse. 
It produced intense darkness. 
All the astronomers "witnessed it. 
It surprised its. 

EX. XV. 
Any one can witness eclipses. 
They -would astonish many people. 
/will inform you. 

You must observe all the circumstances. 
We shall carefully note the details. 
The lawyer sent detectives after him. 
They arrested him at the hotel. 
Angel bands shall guide its thither. 
They shall recognize each other. 
You must finish this lesson. 

Here a change of spelling is required in most of the pronouns, which in 
this respect differ from nouns, and resemble the nouns, pronouns and adjec- 
tives of strictly classical languages. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 11 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XIII. 
I was struck by him. 
It was observed by you. 
We were seen by them. 
He had been offended by me. 
They will be accompanied by us. 
She was displeased at it. 
You will be remembered by her. 
We have been created by Thee. 
You will be paid by them. 
They can not be remunerated by us. 

EX. XIV. 
It would have been prevented by me. 
A profound sensation has been produced by it. 
It -will not be believed by intelligent men. 
All your money "will be lost by you. 
We will be delayed by this accident. 
This example can not be solved by me. 
The eclipse "was seen by us. 
Intense darkness "was produced by it. 
It was witnessed by all the astronomers. 
We were surprised at it. 

EX. XV. 
Eclipses can be witnessed by any one. 
Many people -would be astonished at them. 
You -will be informed by me. 
All the circumstances must be observed by you. 
The details -will be carefully noted by us. 
Detectives "were sent after him by the lawyer. 
He -was arrested by them at the hotel. 
We shall be guided thither by angel bands. 
They shall be recognized by each other. 
This lesson must be finished by you. 

The auxiliaries required in changing these sentences into the Passive Form 
are found by comparing the Rule, p. 115, sec. 15, with the Exercises on pp. 
55 and 61. 



12 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XVI. 
He has lost all the best chances. 
All the people in the room saw her. 
I always discover the errors. 
These complicated entries trouble me. 
You never can dissolve that sugar. 
All our friends have deserted us. 
They will alwaj^s regret such a course. 
Blots and blunders exhibit carelessness. 
Neglect of duty will insure his defeat. 
You have observed the regulations and rules. 

EX. XVII. 
The committee has presented a report. 
They prepared it with great care. 
Fine weather will succeed the storm. 
Some person has taken my gold pen. 
/bought it several days ago. 
All the remaining apples contain worms. 
You might relieve their wants. 
We shall employ no more men. 
I cautioned him against the accident. 
Three horses can draw the car. 

EX. XVIII. 
It must contain more than forty men. 
All these thoughts greatly disturb him. 
The noise does not disturb me. 
She knows all the popular songs. 
You will never instruct her again. 
Every morning paper confirms the news. 
They should have given him a fair warning. 
We shall reciprocate your kindness. 
Your many kind favors deserve our thanks. 
They allowed all his kind words to go unnoticed. 

Carefully compare the Rule for forming the Passive, on p. 115, sec. 15, 
with the illustrations in the Exercises on pp. 54, 55, 57, 58, CO and 01. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 13 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XVI. 
All the best chances have been lost (by him). 
She was seen by all the people in the room. 
The errors are always discovered (by me). 
I am troubled by these complicated entries. 
That sugar never can be dissolved (by you). 
We have been deserted by all owe friends. 
Such a course will always be regretted (by them). 
Carelessness is exhibited by blots and blunders. 
His defeat will be insured by neglect of duty. 
The regulations and rules have been observed (by you). 

EX. XVII. 
A report has been presented (by the committee). 
It was prepared (by them) with great care. 
The storm will be succeeded by fine weather. 
My gold pen has been taken by (some person). 
It was bought (by me) several days ago. 
Worms are contained in all the remaining apples. 
Their wants might be relieved by you. 
No more men will be employed (by us). 
He was cautioned against the accident (by me). 
The car can be drawn by three horses. 

EX. XVIII. 
More than forty men must be contained in it. 
He is greatly disturbed by all these thoughts. 
Jam not disturbed by the noise. 
All the popular songs are known by her. 
She will never be instructed by you again. 
The news is confirmed by every morning paper. 
A fair warning should have been given him (by them). 
Your kindness will be reciprocated (by us). 
Our thanks are deserved for your many "kind favors. 
All his kind ivords were allowed (by them) to go unnoticed. 

Use the proper auxiliaries, as shown in the Pule, p. 115, sec. 15. The 
words in parentheses may he omitted when it is desired not to indicate the 
actor, 



14 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XIX. 
This exercise contains two classes of verbs. 
Some possess a regular termination. 
Others take an irregular ending. 
You have made no mistakes. 
We should have corrected all the errors. 
I found a few misspelled words. 
All these people -will invest money. 
This money would have built a good house. 
Some words require explanations. 
His lecture shows great ability. 

EX. XX. 
They should have asked their friends. 
Our country has seen great changes. 
It will surprise you when you read it. 
My brother found my booh. 
His old clothes possess no value. 
The street car hurt your brother. 
/have spoiled my new hat. 
That shower has saturated it. 
The oldest inhabitant had seen nothing like it. 
Truth overcomes error in the end. 

EX. XXI. 

Error always opposes truth. 

Truth and error oppose each other. 

Our former friends have forgotten us. 

He reflects his father's greatness. 

This event can not change the result. 

The best historians can not verify it. 

A pig ate all the acorns. • 

The pig did not thank the oak. 

The oak could not keep them any longer. 

Pigs devour acorns with avidity. 

The class should now study the Definitions on p. 113, sees. 10 and 11. 
Great attention should be given to the spelling of the Irregular Verbs. See 
p. 193. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 15 

PASSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XIX. 
Two classes of verbs are contained in this exercise. 
A regular termination is possessed by some. 
An irregular ending is taken by others. 
No mistakes have been made (by you). 
All the errors should have been corrected (by us). 
A few misspelled words were found (by me). 
Money "will be invested by all these people. 
A good house would have been built with this money. 
Explanations are required by some ivords. 
Great ability is shown by his lecture. 

EX. XX. 
Their friends should have been asked by them. 
Great changes have been seen by our country. 
You will be surprised at it when it is read by you. 
My book was found by my brother. 
No value is possessed by his old clothes. 
Your brother was hurt by the street car. 
My new hat has been spoiled (by me). 
It has been saturated by that shower. 
Nothing like it had been seen by the oldest inhabitant. 
Error is overcome in the end by truth. 

EX. XXI. 
Truth is always opposed to error. 
Truth and error are opposed to each other. 
We have been forgotten by our former friends. 
His father's greatness is reflected in him. 
The result can not be changed by this event. 
It can not be verified by the best historians. 
All the acorns "were eaten by a pig. 
The oak -was not thanked by the pig. 
They could not be kept any longer by the oak. 
Acorns are devoured with avidity by pigs. 

_ The Passive Form of a sentence is useful in enabling us to avoid any men- 
tion of the agent or actor. Words in parentheses may be omitted. 



16 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XXII. 
That boy lost a pencil. 
The pencil fell. 

He lost the pencil (out of his pocket). 
It fell (out of his pocket). 
I strike the table. 
The table trembles. 
The sun will shine to-morrow. 
The sun will give light to-morrow. 
It will dispel the clouds. 
Tfiey will disappear. 

EX. XXIII. 
Perhaps they will never return. 
Jean not see them now. 
They have gone out of sight. 
Other clouds will fill the sky. 
But //ie?/ will not remain. 
We shall miss the clouds. 
You must look out. 
Perhaps you can find some. 
We must not wait for the clouds. 
The lecturer was sick. 

EX. XXIV. 
He disappointed his audience. 
But it was unavoidable. 
The audience waited for him. 
They expected him every moment. 
However he did not come. 
They can hear his words to-morrow. 
His father may visit him. 
But he can not stay long. 
He will probably bring the money. 
All our money returns to us. 

These sentences contain both Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, as ex- 
plained in the Definitions on p. Ill, sees. 5 and 6, which should now be 
studied. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 17 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXII. 
A pencil was lost by that boy. 
Passive wanting. 

The pencil was lost out of his pocket (by him). 
Passive wanting. 
The table is struck by me. 
Passive wanting. 
No passive. 

Light will be given by the sun to-morrow. 
The clouds will be dispelled (by it). 
No passive. 

EX. XXIII. 
No passive* 

They can not be seen now (by me). 
No passive. 

The sky will be filled with other clouds. 
No passive. 

The clouds will be missed by its. 
No passive. 

Perhaps some can be found by you. 
No passive. 
Passive wanting. 

EX. XXIV. 
His audience -was disappointed by him. 
No passive. 
Passive wanting. 

He was expected by them every moment. 
Passive wanting. 

His words can be heard (by them) to-morrow. 
He may be visited by his father. 
No passive. 

The money will probably be brought by him. 
Passive wanting. 

By referring to p. 112, notes I, II, III and IV, it will be seen why some of 
these sentences have no Passive Form. They contain Intransitive Verbs. 



18 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XXV. 
That little boy's mother punished him. 
He had told a lie. 
Boys should always tell the truth. 

Vice brings its own penalty. 

Virtue, also, brings its own reward. 

My sister has sold her piano. 

She realized a good price for it. 

That hoy has lost his boohs. 

He very carelessly left them at the door. 

This pencil preserves its point well. 

EX. XXVI. 
He lent his pencil to his brother. 
His brother uses his pencil often. 
His brother never lends his pencil. 
He accommodates us very seldom. 
The body can not enrich itself. 
The mind enriches the body. 
The soul contains its own treasures. 
Death translated its victim to the other world. 
His friends asked their many questions. 
% One of them asked this question. 

EX. XXVII. 
What record has he left behind ? 
The angels then made their inquiries. 
What treasures has he sent before ? 
The flowers shed their leaves. 
Autumn winds can not revive these leaves. 
You can not foresee the coming future. 
Neither can mortals undo their past acts. 
The good and true need have no fear of death. 
Good men have already secured seats in Paradise. 
Physicians often disregard their own prescriptions. 

A careful study of sec. 33, p. 120, will enable the student to use the nouns 
and pronouns in their proper places in the Passive Form. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 19 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXV. 
That little boy was punished by bis mother. 
A lie had been told by him. 
The truth should always be told by boys. 
The penalty of vice is brought by itself. 
Virtue's reward is also brought by itself. 
My sister's piano has been sold by her. 
A good price "was realized for it (by her). 
That boy's books have been lost (by him). 
They were very carelessly left at the door (by him). 
The point of this pencil is well preserved (by it). 

EX. XXVI. 
His pencil was lent to his brother (by him). 
His pencil is often used by his brother. 
His brother's 'pencil is never lent by him. 
We are very seldom accommodated by him. 
The body can not be enriched by itself. 
The body is enriched by the mind. 
The treasures of the soul are contained in itself. 
The victim of death was translated to the other world (by it). 
The many questions of his friends "were asked by them. 
This question was asked by one of them. 

EX. XXVII. 
What record has been left behind (by him)? 
The inquiries of the angels were then made by them. 
What treasures have been sent before (by him) ? 
The leaves of the flowers are shed (by them). 
These leaves can not be revived by autumn winds. 
The coming future can not be foreseen (by you). 
Neither can the past acts of mortals be undone (by them). 
No/ear of death need be had by the good and true. 
Seats have already been secured in Paradise by good men. 
Physicians' prescriptions are often disregarded by themselves. 

Pronouns cannot be used before mentioning the nouns for which they 
stand. This makes it necessary to change other words beside the verbs. 



20 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XXVIII. 
Where did you record that transaction ? 
For what reason must you discharge him ? 
Where could a bird build a secure nest f 
Which booh did you select for me ? 
Which note will your father answer ? 
Who will read the magazine ? 
When did the banker pay the check? 
How can you convert water into steam ? 
Who provided you with money ? 
Why must he pay the money twice ? 

EX. XXIX. 
How does your brother do thai ? 
Where did you obtain this book? 
When should a boy ask questions ? 
Which language will you study next ? 
Why do you not eat your breakfast ? 
When did you see my father's castle ? 
How does your father keep his accounts? 
Why has yo ur friend gained nothing ? 
By what does that man obtain his livelihood? 
How did the Romans cultivate the arts? 

EX. XXX. 
When "will your friend visit Italy ? 
How much money shall we deposit ? 
Where may we obtain the necessary information ? 
Which day of the week do the Turks celebrate ? 
How many doors have you opened ? 
Why did they hang that man ? 
What crime had he committed ? 
How might we accomplish this ? 
Where would you plant the trees? 
Who rewarded them for their kindness ? 

This Exercise consists entirely of questions. The same rule is applied to 
them as to direct assertions, care being exercised in using the proper auxil- 
iaries. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 21 

PASSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXVIII. 
Where was that transaction recorded (by you) ? 
For what reason must he be discharged (by you) ? 
Where could a secure nest be built by a bird ? 
Which book was selected for me (by you) ? 
Which note will be answered by your father? 
By whom -will the magazine be read ? 
When was the check paid by the banker ? 
How can water be converted into steam (by you)? 
By whom are you provided with money? 
Why must the money be paid twice (by him) ? 

EX. XXIX. 
How is that done by your brother ? 
Where was this book obtained (by you) ? 
When should questions be asked by a boy f 
Which language will next be studied by you f 
Why is your breakfast not eaten (by you)? 
When was my father's castle seen by you ? 
How are your father's accounts kept (by him) ? 
Why has nothing been gained by your friend ? 
By what is that man's livelihood obtained (by him)? 
How were the arts cultivated by the Romans ? 

EX. XXX. 
When will Italy be visited by jo\xv friend ? 
How much money -will be deposited (by us) ? 
Where may the necessary information be obtained (by us) ? 
Which day of the week is celebrated by the Turks ? 
How many doors have been opened (by you) ? 
Why was that man hanged (by them)? 
What crime had been committed by him ? 
How might this be accomplished (by us) ? 
Where would the trees be planted by you ? 
By whom were they rewarded for their kindness ? 

A question in the Passive Form is often more conspicuous by omitting the 
agent or actor; but it may be retained where identity is necessary. 



22 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XXXI. 
Snoiu and ice blockaded the highways. 
Misfortune and ruin will overtake him. 
Light and heat accompany combustion. 
His easy manners and address attracted attention. 
Our army and navy provide ample protection. 
The carpenters and painters obtained employment. 
Hunting and fishing afford excellent sport. 
Toads and frogs inhabit the swamps. 
Rivers and streams intersect the country. 
Fog and rain prevented our departure. 

EX. XXXII. 
Oxygen and hydrogen form water. 
Clay and gravel obstructed the sidewalk. 
Steam and hot air rilled the tubes. 
Deserts and waste places receive little rain. 
The moon and stars illumined the shy. 
Hoarfrost and dew covered the grass. 
Earthquakes and volcanoes often destroy life. 
Ashes and lava frequently cover the ground. 
Loud noises and tidal waves followed the shock. 
Icebergs and glaciers surround the coast. 

EX. XXXIII. 
Mountains and valleys diversify the land. 
Shells and fossils filled some of the rocks. 
Forests and vegetation cover the country. 
Cables and telegraph lines connect distant countries. 
Railroads and steamboats carry passengers. 
Palms and tropical fruits beautified the island. 
Mud and sand covered the deposit. 
History and poetry enrich Italian scenery. 
Horses and mules draw heavy loads. 
Music and drawing cultivate the taste. 

In these sentences the Subject is compound, and the Verbs are all Transi- 
tive. All these lessons will constitute s^ood Parsing Exercises. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 23 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXXI. 
The highways were blocked -with snow and ice. 
He will be overtaken by misfortune and ruin. 
Combustion is accompanied with light and heat. 
Attention is attracted by bis easy manners and address. 
Ample protection is provided by our army and navy. 
Employment was obtained by the carpenters and painters. 
Excellent sport is afforded by hunting and fishing. 
The swamps are inhabited by toads and frogs. 
The country is intersected by rivers and streams. 
Our departure was prevented by fog and rain. 

EX. XXXII. 
Water is formed of oxygen and hydrogen. 
The sidewalk -was obstructed by da?/ and gravel. 
The Za&es were filled with steam and hot air. 
Little rain is received by deserts and waste places. 
The s% -was illumined by the moon and s/ars. 
The grass -was covered with hoar frost and dew. 
7n/e is often destroyed by volcanoes and earthquakes. 
The ground is frequently covered with as/ies and lava. 
The s/ioc& was followed by loud noises and tidal waves. 
The coas£ is surrounded by icebergs and glaciers. 

EX. XXXIII. 
The Zano? is diversified "with mountains and valleys. 
Some of the rocks -were filled with shells and fossils. 
The country is covered with forests and vegetation. 
Distant countries are connected by caoZes and telegraph Zines. 
Passengers are carried by railroads and steamboats. 
The isZand was beautified by paZms and tropical fruits. 
The deposit was covered with mud and sana 7 . 
Italian scenery is enriched by wi wsic and poetry. 
Heavy Zoads are drawn by horses and mules. 
The taste is cultivated by music and drawing. 

In all the Exercises the class should constantly refer to the definitions, 
which are found in another part of the book, commencing on p. 111. 



24 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XXXIV. 
The sun imparts light and heat to the earth. 
Vegetation requires heat and moisture. 
He saw many horses and carriages. 
Wild beasts devoured women and children. 
Soldiers pursued the Indians and Mormons. 
The Romans conquered Gaul and Britain. 
Shakespeare wrote plays and tragedies. 
Sir Walter Scott composed poetry and fiction. 
The Grecians worshipped gods and heroes. 
Livingstone explored African lakes and rivers. 

EX. XXXV. 
He carefully examined the papers and documents. 
The clerks use pens and pencils. 
The c/iiW saw the ducks and c/eese. 
My mother makes nice pies and cakes. 
The 6oi/s caught a great many crafrs and lobsters. 
Your neighbor sells cigars and tobacco. 
My friend once sold ivines and liquors. 
Your conversation shows care and judgment. 
Every country shows reh'cs and antiquities. 
Mankind alone employ ^/ire and steam. 

EX. XXXVI. 
Other animals use neither of these. 
We also employ speech and writing. 
The schoolmaster taught writing and reading. 
He carefully saved all his dollars and cente. 
All nations have adopted </o/d and silver. 
He alternately produced light and darkness. 
That s/iip has visited all the continents and islands. 
You must omit all " ifs " and " ands." 
The 6<% can find all the " t's " and " Vs.' 9 
Our bodies contain iron and phosphorus. 

In these sentences a compound Object is made to follow a Transitive Verb. 
In transposing them, be careful to place the modifying words in suitable posi- 
tions. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 25 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXXIV. 
Light and heat are imparted to the earth by the sun. 
Heat and moisture are required by vegetation. 
Many hoi~ses and carriages were seen by him. 
Women and children were devoured by wild beasts. 
The Indians and Mormons -were pursued by soldiers. 
Gaul and Britain -were conquered by the Romans. 
Plays and tragedies were written by Shakespeare. 
Poetry and fiction were composed by Sir Waller Scott. 
Gods and heroes were worshipped by the Grecians. 
African lakes and rivers were explored by Livingstone. 

EX. XXXV. 
The papers and documents "were carefully examined by him. 
Pens and pencils are used by the clerks. 
The ducks and geese were seen by the child. 
Nice pies and cakes are made by my mother. 
A great many crabs and lobsters were caught by the boys. 
Cigars and tobacco are sold by your neighbor. 
Wines and liquors were once sold by my friend. 
Care audi judgment are shown in your conversation. 
Relics and antiquities are shown in every country. 
Fire and steam are employed by mankind alone. 

EX. XXXVI. 
Neither of these are used by other animals. 
Speech and writing are also employed by us. 
Writing and reading were taught by the schoolmaster. 
All his dollars and cents "were carefully saved by him. 
Gold and silver have been adopted by all nations. 
Light and darkness -were alternately produced by him. 
All the continents and islands have been visited by that ship. 
All " ifs" and " ands " must be omitted by you. 
All the "i's" and " Vs" can be found by the baby. 
Iron and phosphorus are contained in our bodies. 

After completing each of these Exercises, the class may be required to 
compose a sufficient number of similar sentences, to make the process familiar. 
2 



26 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page 
EX. XXXVII. 
Ink and paper alone can not make a letter. 
To-morrow or next day will bring fine weather. 
Either you or /must drive the horse for her. 
Neither my father nor my mother admires him. 
Both the train and the passengers require change. 
The door or the window will ventilate the room. 
The French and Russians fought a battle. 
Both the hens and the turkeys lay eggs. 
My hands and feet need more comfortable covering. 
Care and attention will insure success. 

EX. XXXVIII. 

Wealth and a lustrous name stimulated him. 

Life and death puzzle profound thinkers. 

Much wine and beer will not make a man wise. 

Your brother and si.ster saw the General. 

Europe and America entertain friendly relations. 

Idleness and industry op;ose each other. 

A good conscience and a contented mind will make a wan sat- 
isfied and happy. 

Good habits and correct principles must surely lead us to suc- 
cess and happiness. 

EX. XXXIX. 
Smiling prosperity or cruel adversity have always attended his 

efforts to succeed. 
Either the love of truth or the sense of duty will compel your 

brother to yield. 
The severe frost of winter and the scorching heat of summer 

Lave destroyed all my plants. 
The excessive discount on silver and the extreme stringency of 

the money market caused him to suspend his business 

operations for almost a whole year. 

The entire Subject, including all the modifying words, must be trans- 
posed. The same is true of the Object. Attention should be given to the 
Rule on p. 115. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 27 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XXXVII. 
A tetter can not be made by ink and paper alone. 
Fine weather will be brought by to-morrow or next day. 
The horse must be driven for her either by you or me. 
He is admired neither by my father nor my mother. 
Change is required by both the train and the passengers. 
The room will be ventilated by the door or the window. 
A battle was fought bet-ween the French and Bussians. 
Eggs are laid by both the hens and the turkeys. 
More comfortable covering is needed by my hands and feet. 
Success will be insured by care and attention. 

EX. XXXVIII. 
i7e was stimulated by wealth and a lustrous ?2«me. 
Profound thinkers are puzzled by K/e and death. 
A ran?*, will not be made wise by much wine and beer. 
The General was seen by your brother and sister. 
Friendly relations are entertained between Europe and America. 
Idleness and industry are opposed to mc/i o//ier. 
A ??ian will be made satisfied and happy by a good conscience 

and a contented mind. 
We must surely be led to success and happiness by good 

habits and correct principles. 

EX. XXXIX. 

His efforts to succeed have always been attended by smiling 
prosperity or cruel adversity. 

Your brother will be compelled to yield, either by the love of 
truth or the sense of duty. 

All my plants have been destroyed by the severe frost of win- 
ter and the scorching heat of summer. 

He was caused to suspend his business operations for almost 
a whole year by the excessive discount on silver and the 
extreme stringency of the money market. 

When a lesson like this is used for a Parsing Exercise, all the verbs should 
be given for one Exercise, the nouns for another, the pronouns for a third, 
and so on. 



28 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XL. 
Bobbers infest the whole country. 
They plunder defenceless travelers. 
They may attack us. 
You must defend your brother. 
He has feared the consequences. 
It might cause his death. 

His death would cast a gloom over the company. 
He -will avoid the attack if possible. 
My sister accompanies the party. 
She knows all the women here. 

EX. XLI. 
Our parents gave their consent. 
You should obtain your father's consent. 
He would, without doubt, grant your request. 
This would relieve us from responsibility. 
/can govern their decision. 
You have seen these men before to-day. 
They once occupied your house. 
We always accommodate such guests. 
The robbers took the treasure. 
They -would have plundered two teachers. 

EX. XLII. 
If you had been there you would have lost your money. 
Kings can not always prevent robbery. 
Monarchs possess great power. 
Rulers receive their power from the people. 
The nation honors its great men. 
The robbers demanded their money. 
They ordered them to throw up their hands. 
They tied their hands to the fence. 
J could render no assistance. 
It would have required five more men. 

The pronouns in some of these sentences are used for nouns in preceding 
ones. The pupils should be required to state the nouns to which they refer. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 29 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XL. 
The whole country is infested "with robbers. 
Defenceless travelers are plundered by them. 
We may be attacked by them. 
Your brother must be defended by you. 
The consequences have been feared by him. 
His death might be caused by it. 

A gloom would be cast over the company by his death. 
The attack will be avoided by him if possible. 
The party is accompanied by my sister. 
All the women here are known to her. 

EX. XLI. 
The consent of our parents was given (by them). 
Your father's consent should be obtained by you. 
Your request would, without doubt, be granted by him. 
We "would be relieved from responsibility by this. 
Their decision can be governed by me. 
These men have been seen by you before to-day. 
Your house was once occupied by them. 
Such guests are always accommodated by us. 
The treasure "was taken by the robbers. 
Two teachers would have been plundered by them. 

EX. XLII. 
Your money would have been lost if you had been there. 
Bobbery can not always be prevented by kings. 
Great power is possessed by monarchs. 
The power of rulers is received (by them) from the people. 
The great men of the nation are honored by it. 
Their money was demanded by the robbers. 
They "were ordered by them to throw up their hands. 
Their hands "were tied to the fence by them. 
No assistance could be rendered by me. 
Five more men "would have been required by it. 

The words contained in jDarentheses are not essential to the statement made 
in the Passive Form, but should be given to show that the lesson is under- 
stood. 



30 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. XLIII. 
These plants derive their nourishment from the soil. 
The soil possesses great fertility. 
It loses its fertility if we neglect it. 
We must not neglect the garden. 
Gardens impart a cheerful appearance. 
They built a fence around the garden. 
A thief stole two boards from the fence. 
A policeman arrested the thief 
Our garden needs some attention. 
The walks "will need gravel on them. 

EX. XLIV. 
You should repair them immediately. 
My sister picked some beautiful flowers. 
She scattered them over the grave. 
/called her away from the place. 
She abandoned it immediately. 
My father bought the garden yesterday. 
He purchased it for another man. 
He will remove the house from the lot. 
It will receive his earliest attention. 
You had sent the messenger before I came. 

EX. XLIV. 
The messenger gave me the key. 
/then unlocked the gate. 
It "would have given you no trouble. 
He has given me some valuable information. 
His report caused that rumor. 
It "will deceive all the people. 
But it "will not mislead the teachers. 
They believe very few such stories. 
Only children accept these tales. 
My brother never believed them. 

When this is used as a written Exercise, the Active Form should be writ- 
ten on a left-hand page, and the Passive at the same time on the opposite 
page. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 31 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XLIII. 
The nourishment of these plants is derived from the soil. 
Great fertility is possessed by the soil. 
Its fertility is lost (by it) if (it is) neglected (by us). 
The garden must not be neglec ed (by us). 
A cheerful appearance is imparted by gardens. 
A fence was built around the garden (by them). 
Two boards were stolen from the fence (by a thief). 
The thief was arrested by a policeman. 
Some attention is needed by our garden. 
Gravel will be needed on the walks. 

EX. XLIV. 
lhey should immediately be r paired by you. 
Some beautiful flowers were picked by my sister. 
They were scattered over the grave by her. 
She was called away from the place by me. 
It was immediately abandoned (by her). 
The garden was bought yesterday by my father. 
It was purchased for another man (by him). 
The house will be removed from the lot (by him). 
His earliest attention -will be received by it. 
The messenger had been sent (by you) before I came. 

EX. XLV. 
The key was given to me by the messenger. 
The gate was then unlocked by me. 
No trouble would have been given to you by it. 
Some valuable information has been given to me by him. 
That rumor was caused by his report. 
All the people will be deceived by it. 
But the teachers will not be misled by it. 
Very few such stories are believed by them. 
These tales are accepted only by children. 
They were never believed by my brother. 

If it is preferred to use the lesson as a Dictation Exercise, the teacher 
should dictate the sentences in the Active Form, and the class be required 
to write the Passive. 



32 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with, the following page. 
EX. XLVI. 
I write my ivords very slowly ami carefully. 
/have "written all the sentences already. 
I "wrote few words yesterday. 
/had written all the words at noon. 
/shall write another page to-morrow. 
I shall have written it before ten o'clock. 

EX. XLVIL 
He sells fruit now. 
He has sold all the fruit already. 
He sold horses last summer. 
He had sold them all previous to June. 
He will sell wheat next winter. 
He will have sold it all before March. 

EX. XLVIII. 
They count all the money. 
They have counted it three times. 
They counted it wrong yesterday. 
They had counted it before I came. 
They will count a great quantity to-morrow. 
They will have counted it before three o'clock. 

EX. XLIX. 
She reads her words very distinctly. 
She has read all the news. 
She read a book yesterday. 
She had read two books before that time. 
She "will read the paper in the morning. 
She "will have read it before ten o'clock. 

The form of the Active and Passive in all the Moods and Tenses will be 
found in the Exercises on pages 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, and 61. Many additional 
exercises may now be prepared by requiring the class to confine their atten- 
tion to some particular Verb in all the Tenses of the Indicative Mood, and 
retain the same Pronoun throughout, as has been done on this page. This 
should be continued until the class has become perfectly familiar with this 
Mood. Oral exercises should be conducted at the same time, so that the 
class may be well drilled. A complete sentence should be formed in each of 
the six Tenses, as illustrated above. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 33 

PASSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. XLVI. 
My words are very slowly and carefully written (by me). 
All the sentences have been written (by me) already. 
Few words -were written (by me) yesterday. 
All the words had been -written (by me) at noon. 
Another page will be written (by me) to-morow. 
It will have been written (by me) before ten o'clock. 

EX. XLVII. 
Fruit is now sold by him. 
All the fruit has been sold (by him) already. 
Last summer hordes were sold by him. 
They had all been sold (by him) previous to June. 
Next winter wheat will be sold by him. 
Before March it will all have been sold (by him). 

EX. XLVIII. 
All the money is counted by them. 
It has been counted three times (by them). 
Yesterday it was counted wrong by them. 
It had been counted (by them) before I came. 
A great quantity will be counted (by them) to-morrow. 
Before three o'clock it will have been counted (by them). 

EX. XLIX. 
Her, words are very distinctly read by her. 
All the news has been read by her. 
Yesterday a book was read by her. 
Two books had been read by her before that time. 
In the morning the paper "will be read by her. 
It "will have been read by her before ten o'clock. 

The Definitions on pages 111, 116, 117, 118, and 119 should be carefully 
studied in connection with this Exercise, together with the notes at the foot. 
The teacher should make use of the blackboard as much as possible, calling 
upon each member of the class to write a sentence for illustration, and ask- 
ing for friendly criticisms on the part of the others. Appropriate sentences 
should be given for the purpose of giving the most perspicuous illustrations 
of the particular adaptation of each Tense to the thought required to be ex- 
pressed. The examples need not be confined to declarative sentences alone, 
but may include all other kinds, as given in Part IV. 



34 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ACTIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. L. 
Four men pump the water. 
Ihey have worked the pumps all clay. 
This work exhausted five other men. 
No other workmen had attempted it. 
We shall hire no more hands. 
They will have completed the work by night. 

EX. LI. 
The chairman appoints no officers. 
The society has elected all the officers. 
He deprived me of my rights. 
/had done nothing deserving censure. 
We shall call another meeting. 
/shall have made all the announcements. 

EX. LII. 
The Express Company transports packages. 
We have employed that man before. 
The Secretary -wrote the letter. 
He had "written two letters previously. 
You -will receive no more letters. 
Our friends will have brought the news. 

EX. LIII. 
Your brother denies the fact. 
He has broken the glass. 
One of the visitors took my hat. 
/had just bought a new one. 
You will now require a new hat. 
He will have bought it for you before noon. 

Additional sentences may be composed by the teacher, and arranged ac- 
cording to the Tenses of the Indicative Mood. In the Forty-first Exercise, 
the fifth and sixth sentences, representing the Future and Future^Perfect 
Tenses of the Indicative Mood, the word "shall" is used to express simple 
futurity, with the First Personal Pronoun in the plural as well as the singu- 
lar number. Attention should be called to the illustration on page 117, sec- 
tion 20; and also to the widely different meaning conveyed in the second 
sentence on page 85, as compared with the one on the page opposite, Many 
such examples should be required of the class. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 35 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. L. 
The water is pumped by four mpn. 
The pumps have been worked by them all day. 
Five other men were exhausted by this work. 
It had been attempted by ho other workmen. 
No more hands will be hired (by us). 
By night the ivork will have been completed (by them). 

EX. LI. 
No officers are appointed by the chairman. 
All the officers have been elected by the society. 
J was deprived of my rights by him. 
Nothing deserving censure had been done by me. 
Another meeting will be called (by va). 
All the announcements will have been made (by me). 

EX. LII. 
Packages are transported by the Express Company. 
That man has been employed by us before. 
The letter was written by the Secretary. 
Two letters had previously been written (by him). 
No more letters will be received by you. 
The news will have been brought by our friends. 

EX. LIII. 
The fact is denied by your brother. 
The glass has been broken by him. 
My hat was taken by one of the visitors. 
A new one had just been bought by me. 
Another hat will now be required by you. 
It will have been bought for you (by him) before noon. 

On this and the preceding page, each Exercise contains a representation of 
all the Tenses of the Indicative Mood. Bat in these, instead of retaining 
the same Verb, and repeating the Pronoun first used, both Verbs and Pro- 
nouns have been replaced by others in each of the succeeding sentences. 
This will be found still more difficult than the process illustrated on pages 32 
and 33, and should be continued until no difficulty is experienced in the con- 
struction of such sentences. Not only should the Tenses be given in the nat- 
ural order, but promiscuous Exercises should be given, changing the order in 
which the Tenses occur. 



36 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION". 

ACTIVE OR COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LIV. 
The first boy may state the proposition. 
He can not recite it. 

You must study it once more. 

He may have forgotten it. 

They can not have studied it very much. 

The whole class must have heard it. 

We might lose our money. 

She could not avoid it. 

It would satisfy the most fastidious. 

You should prepare it better. 
/might have informed them. 
This boy could have solved it. 
He would have imparted the secret. 

They should have received it. 

EX. LV. 
You may go out in the garden with him. 
That boy at the desk can do it. 
They must write this lesson correctly. 
He may have seen my brother. 
It can not have rained very hard. 
Its construction must have consumed time. 
It might contain the missing treasure. 
That boy could say it when J asked him. 
Such trees "would yield much fruit. 
Such dangerous dogs should not live. 
The city might have paid it long ago. 
We could have made a fortune. 
Your brother would have lost the trail. 
He should have fed the horses long ago. 

In this Exercise the Tenses of the Potential Mood are used with all the 
Auxiliary Verbs that belong to it, in the natural order. See p. 118, sec. 24; 
also pp. 188 and 189. The sentences contained in the fifth line of Exercises 
LIV. and LV., it will be observed, are both negative, as the positive is of 
very rare occurrence where the Auxiliary " can " is used in the Present- Per- 
fect Potential. " Must" is generally made to supersede the use of "can," in 
this Tense. The particular signification of "may," "can," "must," "might," 
"could," "would," and " should," is thus more easily shown by actually in- 
serting each in a sentence for illustration. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 37 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LIV. 
The proposition may be stated by the first boy. 
It can not be recited by him. 
It must be studied (by you) ouce more. 
It may have been forgotten by him . 
It can not have been studied very much (by them). 
It must have been heard by the whole class. 
Our money might be lost (by us). 
It could not be avoided by her. 
The most fastidious would be satisfied (with it). 
It should be better prepared (by you). 
They might have been informed by me. 
It could have been solved by this boy. 
The secret would have been imparted by him. 
It should have been received by them. 

EX. LV. 
Passive wanting. 

It can be done by that boy at the desk. 
This lesson must be correctly written (by them). 
My brother may have been seen by him. 
No passive. 

Time must have been consumed in its construction. 
The missing treasure might be contained in it. 
It could be said by that boy when he was asked by me. 
Muck fruit -would be yielded by such trees. 
Passive wanting. 

It might have been paid by the city long ago. 
A for tune could have been made (by us). 
The trail "would have been lost by your brother. 
The horses should have been fed long ago (by him). 

The teacher should be careful to insist upon using that Auxiliary Verb in 
the Passive Form which corresponds to the Active. Oral exercises should be 
used in addition to the written lesson. First require the Auxiliary Verbs to 
be given in their natural order. Afterwards they should be promiscuously 
arranged, and explanations should be given as to the preference of one Auxil- 
iary over another for the presentation of a particular thought. Not only 
should declarative sentences be used, but each of the others, as explained in 
Analysis, Part IV. 



38 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LVI. 
My brother has always kept the books. 
The doctor will probably keep the minutes. 
The ladie* had already eo leeted the money. 
/shall have forgot. en it by that time. 
Such difficult examples greatly puzzle him. 
All birds do not build their nests in trees. 
Spiders destroy the lives of many flies. 
Our opportunities have all gone. 
We certainly expscted a better result. 
That coed burns with a bluish flame. 

EX. LVII. 

The horses all ran away. 

They completely destroyed some of the wagons. 
We must at once repair them. 
Your friends now reside in the country- 
Five applicants attended the examination. 
No man had ever made such an attempt. 
He experienced the most determined opposition. 
/had not expected such an answer. 
Another savings bank has failed. 
We have certainly lost our money. 

EX. LVIII. 
/once assisted his brother in New York. 
We had corresponded for a long time. 
You must not cut the dog's ears. 
They would bleed profusely. 
The bird flew away and escaped. 
He can find it nowhere. 
We should write another letter to him. 
The last letter may have miscarried. 
Our friends have lately bought a house in Troy. 
They would have hospitably entertained us. 

Some of these sentences are negative. In transposing them, the words 
"no" and "not" should be severally employed, so as to produce the desired 
effect. 



PBINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 39 

PASSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LVI. 
The books have always been kept by my brother. 
The minutes will probably be kept by the doctor. 
The money had already been collected by the ladies. 
By that time it will have been forgotten (by me). 
He is greatly puzzled over such difficult examples. 
The nests of all birds are not built in trees (by them). 
The lives of many flies are destroyed by spiders. 
Passive wanting. 

A better result was certainly expected (by us). 
No passive. 

EX. lVii. 
No passive. 

Some of the wagons were completely destroyed (by them). 
They must at once be repaired (by us). 
No passive. 

The examination was attended by five applicants. 
Such an attempt had never been made by any man. 
The most determined opposition was experienced by him. 
Such an answer had not been expected (by me). 
Passive wanting. 
Our money has certainly been lost (by us). 

EX. LVTEI. 

His brother was once assisted by me in New York. 

No passive. 

The dog's ears must not be cut (by you). 

No passive. 

Passive wanting. 

It can nowhere be found (by him). 

Another letter should be -written to him (by us). 

No passive. 

A house has lately been bought in Troy by our friends. 

We would have been hospitably entertained by them. 

The sentences that are "wanting" in the Passive Form have Intransitive 
Verbs. On p. Ill, sees. 5 and 6, will be found the Definitions required. 



40 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LIX. 
He deliberately broke the window. 
Our roof now leaks badly. 
We must mend it at the first opportunity. 
You have now failed for the third time. 
You could not have carefully studied the lesson. 
The boy cried like a baby. 
This diligent boy always studies the lesson. 
He always succeeds in what he undertakes. 
/ shall undoubtedly receive the- money. 
Mucilage holds the stamp in its place. 

EX. LX. 
It adheres to the letter tenaciously. 
All my plants and flowers would have died. 
Heavy frosts might kill them at any time. 
You could receive no benefit whatever. 
The stars shine forever in the sky. 
They give very little light. 
/always admire the beautiful stars. 
They all usually disappear in the morning. 
The moon may possibly give some light. 
It often shines in at my window. 

EX. LXI. 
It always shines in the heavens. 
We should soon see it in the east. 
I have repeatedly observed it. 
It often rains at night but not in the day. 
It often freezes the water in our kitchen. 
Ice will not always melt in the sun's rays. 
The water may evaporate. 
The sun quickly disperses the heavy clouds. 
They then pass rapidly away. 
We must positively refuse your request. 

Those sentences that contain Transitive Verbs are the only ones that have 
a Passive Form. See notes 1, 2, 3, and 4, on p. 112, for explanation. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 41 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LIX. ! 
The window was deliberately broken (by him). 
No passive. 

It must be mended by us at the first opportunity. 
Passive wanting. 

The lesson could not have been carefully studied (by you). 
No passive. 

The lesson is always studied by this diligent boy. 
He always succeeds in what is undertaken by him. 
The money will undoubtedly be received (by me). 
The stamp is held in its place by mucilage. 

EX. LX. 
Passive wanting. 
No passive. 

They might be killed at any time by heavy frosts. 
No benefit whatever could be received by you. 
No passive. 

Very little light is given by them. 
The beautiful stars are always admired by me. 
Passive wanting. 

Some light may possibly be given by the moon. 
No passive. 

EX. LXI. 

Passive wanting. 

It should soon be seen in the east (by us). 

It has been repeatedly observed by me. 

Passive wanting. 

The water in our kitchen is often frozen (by it). 

No passive. 

No passive. 

The heavy clouds are quickly dispersed by the sun. 

No passive. 

Your request must positively be refused (by us). 

The teacher should require each pupil to state particularly the reasons why 
those sentences that are " wanting" in the Passive cannot be transposed. 



42 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXII. 
The train arrives regularly in the afternoon. 
The train carries passengers regularly in the afternoon. 
The tide rises very slowly. 
Every steamer had left the port. 
No steamer will depart to-morrow. 
All the cattle in Egypt died. 
Lightning afterwards killed the cattle. 
Strange events may sometimes happen. 
The thunder might roar. 
We might have avoided the storm. 

EX. LXIII. 
He always carries an umbrella. 
It has overtaken us at last. 
But we shall by no means run away. 
You could have averted this calamity. 
Many wealthy men have lately failed. 
They could not protect their creditors. 
Our o> porlunityh&S at length come. 
We will embrace this opportunity. 
It may possibly make a fortune for us. 
We shall gather a few leaves. 

EX. LXIV. 
Leaves and flowers ornament your room. 
Your brother spoke kindly to the little boy. 
He smiled pleasantly and "went away. 
My father will relate his adventures. 
They "will afford much amusement. 
The entire company may listen to it. 
This narrative will instruct them. 
Every person in the room can hear him. 
It will certainly displease nobody. 
All the gaslights suddenly went out. 

By omitting the word "passengers," in the second sentence, the difference 
between the Verbs "arrive" and "carry " can be very forcibly illustrated. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 43 

PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXII. 
Passive wanting. 

Passengers are regularly carried on the train in the afternoon. 
No passive. 

The po?H had been left by every steamer. 
Passive wanting. 
No passive. 

The cattle were afterwards killed by lightning. 
No passive. 
Passive wanting. 
The storm might have been avoided (by us). 

EX. LXIII. 
An umbrella is always carried by him. 
We have at last been overtaken by it. 
No passive. 

This calamity could have been averted (by you). 
No passive. 

Their creditors could not be protected (by them). 
Passive wanting. 

This opportunity shall be embraced (by us). 
A fortune may possibly be made for us (by it). 
A few leaves "will be gathered by us. 

EX. LXIV. 
Your room is ornamented with leaves and flowers. 
The little boy was kindly spoken to by your brother. 
No passive. 

My father's adventures will be related (by him). 
Much amusement will be afforded (by them). 
It may be listened to by the entire company. 
They will be instructed by this narrative. 
He can be heard by every person in the room. 
Certainly nobody will be displeased by it. 
Passive wanting. 

In connection with each of these Exercises, the teacher should assign a les- 
son consisting of the Definitions, commencing on p. 111. 



44 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXV. 
The audience objected to his remarks. 
They all opposed this arbitrary measure. 
The audience disliked his remarks. 
But they concurred in the original motion. 
The chairman presided over the meeting. 
They voted on each clause separately. 
He persistently adhered to his former statement. 
Another man referred to his previous conduct. 
One of them called for a division. 
The chairman instantly acceded to his request. 

EX. LXVI. 
This boy has outdone all his competitors. 
He alone "worked out the result. 
We all arrived at the same conclusion. 
"The times of this ignorance God winked at." 
Some of the officers conspired against the king. 
All the boys and girls laughed at him. 
They struck out the objectionable word. 
The committee inquired into his character. 
/marked out the course for him to pursue. 
The physician spoke to a lawyer. 

EX. LXVII. 
The lawyer hinted at some defect. 
The prisoner fired at the policeman. 
He "waited for the letter very anxiously. 
He looked over it carefully. 

His audience anxiously looked for his appearance. 
The judge has heard from the adjoining county. 
Some boys asked for apples. 
He indulges in bad language. 
They do not live up to the teachings of nature. 
His friends soon prevailed upon him. 

Although Intransitive Verbs, when standing alone, are destitute of a Pas- 
sive Form, the use of an Inseparable Preposition enables us to transpose 
them. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 45 

PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXV. 
His remarks were objected to by the audience. 
This arbitrary measure was opposed by all. 
His remarks were disliked by the audience. 
But the original motion was concurred in (by them). 
The meeting was presided over by the chairman. 
Each clause -was separately voted on (by them). 
His former statement was persistently adhered to (by him). 
His previous conduct was referred to by another man. 
A division was called for by one of them. 
His request was instantly acceded to by the chairman. 

EX. LXVI. 
All this boy's competitors have been outdone (by him). 
The result was worked out by him alone. 
The same conclusion was arrived at by all of us. 
" The times of this ignorance 'were winked at by God." 
The king -was conspired against by some of the officers. 
He -was laughed at by all the boys and girls. 
The objectionable word was stricken out (by them). 
His character was inquired into by the committee. 
The course for him to pursue was marked out by me. 
A lawyer was spoken to by the physician. 

EX. LXVII. 
Some defect was hinted at by the lawyer. 
The policeman was fired at by the prisoner. 
The letter was very anxiously waited for (by him). 
It "was carefully looked over (by him). 
His appearance "was anxiously looked for by the audience. 
The adjoining county has been heard from by the judge. 
Apples "were asked for by some boys. 
Bad language is indulged in by him. 
The teachings of nature are not lived up to by them. 
He "was soon prevailed upon by his friends. 

The Inseparable Prepositions should be pointed out by the class, and the 
definition in sec. Ill, p. 135, given to explain the object of their use. 



46 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXVIII. 
You may pay the money when I arrive. 
It rains very hard to-day. 
It rains several times every month. 
You may play while I read. 
"We should collect the money while he is away. 
He may tell the truth. . 
"When you arrive it may rain. 
He always listens while I explain. 
Your brother may be at home. 
He may live with his sister. 

EX. LXIX. 
I walked with her when it struck. 
I worked there at the time it exploded. 
He sat in the office while I looked for the book. 
You might do much good. 
"We use all our influence to help him. 
He "writes his exercise now. 
He "wrote while I was there. 
This all happened while I waited. 
The crop grows while the farmer sleeps. 
The horse runs all over the field. 

EX. LXX. 
Your mother cries when she thinks of him. 
We will stand at the door while you pay the money. 
They must answer when I call. 
The teacher examined the papers. 
We looked at them while we remaiued. 
The scholars had -written exercises. 
She corrected them then. 
I corrected mine before that time. 
He drank water when I looked at him. 
An astronomer must make the observations. 

The sentences are changed from the Common to the Progressive Form, in 
accordance with the Definition in sec. 16, p. 115. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 47 

PEOGRESSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXVIII. 
You may be paying the money when I arrive. 
It is raining very hard to-day. 
No progressive. 

You may be playing while I am reading. 
We should be collecting the money while he is away. 
He may be telling the truth. 
When you arrive it may be raining. 
He is always listening while I am explaining. 
Progressive wanting. 
He may be living with his sister. 

EX. LXIX. 
I was walking with her when it struck. 
I was working there at the time it exploded. 
He wa^ sitting in the office while I -was looking for the book. 
You might be doing much good. 
We are using all our influence to help him. 
He is "writing his exercise now. 
He was writing while I was there. 
This all happened while I was waiting. 
The crop is growing while the farmer is sleeping. 
The horse is runn.ng all over the field. 

EX. LXX. 
Your mother cries when she is thinking of him. 
We will be standing at the door while you are paying the 

money. 
No progressive. 

The teacher was examining the papers. 
We "were looking at them while we remained. 
The scholars had besn writing exercises. 
She -was correcting them then. 
No progressive. 

He was drinking water when I "was looking at him. 
No progressive. 

When the act is an instantaneous one there can be no Progressive Form, as 
there can be no continuance to be indicated. See sec. 13, p. 114. 



48 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXXI 
I left immediately after the clock struck one. 
They had expected their friends a whole week. 
The wind blew the dust about. 
We draw near the close of the year. 
He continually makes monej r . 
Your dog eats the meat in the kitchen. 
He ran away when I shouted. 
The men have plowed for two weeks. 
They have searched for the horses. 
They have completed the contract. 

EX. LXXII. 
Our friends "will "wait for us. 
Saul hated David. 
They sat near the door. 
I saw them after the door opened. 
The children saw the show. 
They sat on the seat when it broke. 
The child killed flies for amusement. 
He never thought of the cruelty. 
The water ran all night. 
He drew a picture when I was there. 

EX. LXXIII. 
The clock strikes and I must go. 
My hand bleeds when I cut it. 
His nose bleeds now. 
It had rained all day. 
I could not go out. 
You cut the paper too small. 
He must sing, for I can hear him. 
The gas has burned all night. 
You read too loud. 
You do not hold your pen properly. 

When this Exercise is used for dictation, the teacher should give the sen- 
tence in the Common Form, and the class write it in the Progressive. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 49 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXI. 
Progressive wanting. 

They -had been expecting their friends a whole week. 
The wind was blowing the dust about. 
We are drawing near the close of the year. 
He is continually making money. 
Your dog is eating the meat in the kitchen. 
No progressive. 

The men have been plowing for two weeks. 
They have been searching for the horses. 
Progressive wanting. 

EX. LXXII. 
Our friends will be waiting for us. 
No progressive. 

They were sitting near the door. 
Progressive wanting. 
The children were seeing the show. 
They were sitting on the seat when it broke. 
The child was killing flies for amusement. 
No progressive. 

The water was running all night. 
He was drawing a picture while I was there. 

EX. LXXIII. 
The clock is striking and I must be going. 
No progressive. 
His nose is bleeding now. 
It had been raining all day. 
Progressive wanting. 
You are cutting the paper too small. 
He must be singing, for I can hear him. 
The gas has been burning all night. 
You are reading too loud. 
You are not holding your pen properly. 

In case there is no Progressive Form for the sentence, the class should be 
required to write the Common Form as it is dictated by the teacher. 
3 






50 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXXIV. 
He does not fold the paper as I wish. 
You must not expect such great results. ^ 

Why do you not count the money? 
It is probable that he waits for us. 
Can it rain ? 

It did not rain when I was out. 
He knows very well what I say. 
Do you reside there at present ? 
Our house commands a fine view. 
He now commands a regiment. 

EX. LXXV. 
We shall surprise everybody. 
I shall receive visitors this evening. 
That man calls his dog. 
The dog barks at something. 
He has hunted for a rabbit. 
He evidently could not find it. 
He has demonstrated a proposition. 
I had examined his previous work. 
You should now travel in the country. 
They may perform when we get there. 

EX. LXXVI. 
One night I got there too late. 
It is wrong to study so many books. 
Do not worry about it. 
They gave him some trouble. 
I can not attend to everybody. 
I sharpen my pencil. 
He never sharpens his pencil. 
It never rains here in the summer. 
But the wind always blows. 
We expect her arrival every da}'. 

These sentences form good Exercises for parsing. Lessons should be given 
out to be written at home and corrected on the following day. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 51 

PKOGKESSIVE FOBM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXIV. 
He is not folding the paper as I wish. 
You must not be expecting such great results. 
Why are you not counting the money ? 
It is probable that he is -waiting for us. 
Can it be raining ? 
It was not raining when I was out. 
He knows very well what I am saying. 
Are you residing there at present ? 
No progressive. 
He is now commanding a regiment. 

EX. LXXV. 
Progressive wanting. 

I shall be receiving visitors this evening. 
That man is calling his clog. 
The clog is barking at something. 
He has been hunting for a rabbit. 
No progressive. 

He has been demonstrating a proposition. 
I had been examining his previous work. 
You should now be traveling in the country. 
They may be performing when we get there. 

EX. LXXVI. 
No progressive. 

It is wrong to be studying so many books. 
Do not be -worrying about it. 
They were giving him some trouble. 
I can not be attending to everybody. 
I am sharpening my pencil. 
No progressive. 
Progressive wanting. 
But the wind is always blowing. 
We are expecting her arrival every clay. 

By assigning the lessons in the Definitions, commencing on p. Ill, in con- 
nection with these Exercises, the interest of the class can be preserved. 



52 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON FOKM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXXVII. 
Iu the mean time we will prepare for it. 
The boy left as soon as his brother entered. 
He might study while you are absent. 
I write out my explanations. 
He may receive proposals. 
You can -walk before us. 
I come after you. 
She will sing when they arrive. 
We shall not buy any goods then. 
Their friends could not come. 

EX. LXXVIIL 
They could not always assist them. 
I corrected it when you saw me. 
We had searched for it everywhere. 
You ruin your health. 
He chews tobacco now. 
I look out of the window. 
They require much money. 
We should collect our money. 
That man has examined the books. 
He gains strength daily. 

EX. LXXIX. 
They should toll the bell. 
Every man must kneel while they pass. 
Nobody would let the procession pass. 
The tide has ebbed and flowed for ages. 
That boy talks too loud. 
He can only breathe with great difficulty. 
The other boys laugh at us. 
They might study their lessons. 
They should not lose their time. 
It is necessary to study all the time. 

The class should be required by the teacher to state under what circum- 
stances they would use the Common and Progressive Forms respectively. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 53 

PROGKESSIVE FOEM. 

To be taken with the ijreceding page. 
EX. LXXVII. 
In the mean time we will be preparing for it. 
No progressive. 

He might be studying while you are absent. 
I am writing out my explanations. 
He may be receiving proposals. 
You can be walking before us. 
I am coming after you. 
She -will be singing when they arrive. 
We shall not be buying any goods then. 
Progressive wanting. 

EX. LXXVIII. 
They could not be always assisting them. 
I was correcting it when you saw me. 
We had been searching for it everywhere. 
You are ruining your health. 
He is chewing tobacco now. 
I am looking out of the window. 
No progressive. 

We should be collecting our money. 
That man has been examining the books. 
He is gaining strength daily. 

EX. LXXIX. 
They should be tolling the bell. 

Every man must be kneeling while they are passing. 
No progressive. 

The tide has been ebbing and flowing for ages. 
That boy is talking too loud. 
No progressive. 

The other boys are laughing at us. 
They might be studying their lessons. 
They should not be losing their time. 
It is necessary to be studying all the time. 

The Moods and Tenses of the different Verbs should be preserved when 
they are transposed from the Common to the Passive or Progressive Form. 



54 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



COMMON FOBM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXXX. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. He tells the truth. 

Pres. Per/. Re has told the truth. 

Past. He told the truth. 

Past Perf. He had told the truth. 

Future. He will tell the truth. 

Fut. Perf. He will have told the truth. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. He may tell the truth. 
Pres. Perf. He may have told the truth. 
Past. He might tell the truth. 

Past Perf. He might have told the truth. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For him) to tell the truth. 
Pres. Perf. (For him) to have told the truth. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Tell the truth! (Addressed to the actor.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Telling the truth surprises him. 

Past. Told (or ended) tales. 

Perfect. Having told the truth, he sat down. 

In the Future and Future Perfect, "shall "may be substituted for "will." 
See sec. 20, p. 117; also, p. 189. In the Present and Present Perfect Poten- 
tial, " may," "can," or "must " can be used; and in the Past and Past Per- 
fect, "might," "could," "would," or " should " can be employed. See p. 
188. The Infinitive Mood derives its name from the fact that it is used to 
ex]3ress an act without the use of a grammatical subject. Consequently, the 
two expressions given above, to illustrate the Present and Past Tenses of this 
Mood, are not sentences. See Part IV., Analysis. In the sentence, "It is 
impossible for him to tell the truth," the expression, "for him to tell the 
truth," is in apposition with the superfluous nominative, "it," and by trans- 
position we make it read, "It, for him to tell the truth, is impossible." 
Dropping "it "and the words " for him," which became necessary in the con- 
struction on account of the infinite application which could otherwise be 
made, we have, "To tell the truth is impossible," to which "for him" must 
be added, in order to limit it to one particular person. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



55 



PASSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXXI. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. The truth is told by him. 

Pres. Per/. The truth has been told by him. 

Past. The truth was told by him. 

Past Perf. The truth had been told by him. 

Future. The truth will be told by him. 

Fut. Perf. The truth will have been told by him. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. The truth may be told by him. 

Pres. Perf. The truth may have been told by him. 

Past. The truth might be told by him. 

Past Perf. The truth might have been told by him. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For the truth) to be told by him. 

Pres. Perf. (For the truth) to have been told by him. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Truth! Be told! (Addressed to the object.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. The truth being told, he is surprised. 

Past. Been told. (Used only in forming Perf ect Tenses.) 

Perfect. The truth having been told, I am satisfied. 

A comparison of this Exercise with those on the pages preceding page 54, 
will assist the pupil in selecting the proper Auxiliary to use in the process of 
transposition from the Active to the Passive Form. The Subjunctive Mood 
has purposely been omitted, as it has now become almost obsolete. See page 
1 80 and preceding page. 

The expression "by him," which is found at the conclusion of each line, 
is only necessary to convey the same information that is contained in the 
Active Form. The chief advantage of the Passive over the Active Form 
is the facility with which we are able to omit all allusion to the actor. 
When it is desired to call attention to the person or agency by which any 
given result was obtained, the Active Form is preferred; but should we wish 
to withhold this information, or desire to call more particular attention to the 
thing done than to the doer, the Passive Form enables us to do this with 
grace and elegance of expression. 



56 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



PEOGRESSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXXIL 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. He is telling the truth. 

Pres. Per/. He has been telling the truth. 

Past. He -was telling the truth. 

Past Per/. He had been telling the truth. 

Future. He -will be telling the truth. 

Fut. Per/. He will have been telling the truth. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. He may be telling the truth. * 

Pres. Per/. He may have been telling the truth. 

Past. He might be telling the truth. 

Past Per/. He might have been telling the truth. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For him) to be telling the truth. 

Pres. Perf. (For him) to have been telling the truth, 

• IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Be telling the truth. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 



Being telling the truth, let him continue. 
Been telling. (Combination for Perfect Tenses.) 
Having been telling the truth, he is now believed 
by all. 



The Verb "be " has what may be called a Progressive Form, but it is lim- 
ited to the Present and Past Indicative. It is more properly, however, a 
Passive Form of the Progressive in these two Tenses. No other Tense of the 
Progressive has a Passive Form. Example: "The truth is being told by 
him;" "anew blade was being made for it." When transposed into the 
Active Form, these two sentences become: "He is telling the truth," and 
" The cutler was making a new blade for it." Now the impossibility of em- 
ploying the remaining Tenses of the Progressive Form in this way is obvious. 
For example, the Present Perfect Indicative, "He has been telling the 
truth," would become, " The truth has been being told by him," which is 
absurd. In fact, we have in these two modifications of the Present and Past 
Indicative, an exact analogy to the same Tenses in the Emphatic Form of the 
Verb. They alone need "do " and "did," because they are the only Tenses 
that are destitute of an Auxiliary. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



57 



COMMON FORM. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. LXXXIII. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Badd persuades Harry. 

Pres. Perf, Badd has persuaded Harry. 

Past. Badd persuaded Harry. 

Past Perf. Badd had persuaded Harry. 

Future. Budd will persuade Harry. 

Fut. Perf. Budd will have persuaded Harry. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. Budd may persuade Harry. 

Past Perf. Budd may have persuaded Harry. 

Past. Budd might persuade Harry. 

Past Perf Budd might have persuaded Harry. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. ... 

Present. (For Budd) to persuade Harry. 

Pres. Perf. (For Budd) to have persuaded Harry. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Budd! Persuade Harry ! 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 



Budd, in persuading Harry, lost the train. 

(Budd ! Is Harry) persuaded? 

Budd, having persuaded Harry, returned. 



As illustrated above, a much more natural and perspicuous instance of the 
change of the Imperative Mood into the Passive Form is obtained. It seems 
difficult to illustrate its use with inanimate objects or abstract principles. 
For this reason we have selected the names of two persons in each illustra- 
tion. The Imperative Mood presents the greatest difficulty; but with the ex- 
amples upon this and the two following pages, it is believed that even the 
youngest pupils will find no difficulty in perceiving the difference between the 
Common or Active, the Passive, and the Progressive Form, even in the Im- 
perative Mood. "Budd," in the Infinitive Mood, is made the object of a 
Preposition, for the reasons explained on page 54. In the Present Participle 
it is put in the Nominative Case before the Finite Verb "lost," and in the 
Perfect Participle "returned." The Past Participle " persuaded," as used 
above, is only the Present Indicative, Passive, Interrogative. 



58 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



PASSIVE FOKM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXXIV. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Harry is persuaded by Budd. 

Pres. Per/. Harry has been persuaded by Budd. 

Past. Harry "was persuaded by Budd. 

Past Per/. Harry had been persuaded by Budd. 

Future. Harry will be persuaded by Budd. 

Fut. Per/. Harry will have been persuaded by Budd. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. Harry may be persuaded by Budd. 

Pres. Per/. Harry may have been persuaded by Budd. 

Past. Harry might be persuaded by Budd. 

Past Per/. Harry might have been persuaded by Budd. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For Harry) to be persuaded by Budd. 

Pres. Per/. (For Harry) to have been persuaded by Budd. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Harry ! Be persuaded by Budd. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 



Harry, being persuaded by Budd, went home. 
Budd ! (Has Harry) been persuaded ? 
Harry, having been persuaded by Budd, remained, 
but I left. 



In this example we have in the Imperative Mood the exact significance of 
the change from Common or Active to the Passive Form. In the Common, 
the actor or agent is addressed. In the Passive, the person acted upon is 
substituted. It is not as easy to see this distinction where inanimate objects 
are concerned as it is when we substitute persons in the same construction. 
The difficulty becomes much greater with young pupils, and for this reason 
we have repeated the three Forms with the names of persons, at the same 
time giving an additional model for the teacher in assigning Exercises of this 
kind. Any Transitive Verb may be selected for this purpose; and these 
Exercises should be continued until each pupil can conjugate the Verb 
accurately. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



59 



PEOGRESSIVE FORM. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. LXXXV. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Budd is persuading Harry. 

Pres. Per/. Budd has been persuading Harry. 

Past. Budd was persuading Harry. 

Past Per/. Budd had been persuading Harry. 

Future. Budd will be persuading Harry. 

Fat. Per/. Budd will have been persuading Harry. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. Budd may be persuading Harry. 

Pres. Per/. Budd may have been persuading Harry. 

Past. Budd might be persuading Harry. 

Past Per/. Budd might have been persuading Harry. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For Budd) to be persuading Harry. 

Pres. Per/. (For Budd) to have been persuading Harry. 



Present. 

Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 



IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Budd ! Be persuading Harry 1 

PARTICIPLES. 

Budd, being persuading Harry, may convince him. 
Been persuading (combination for Perfect Tenses). 
Having been persuading. 

A little careful study of the Participles will disclose their deficiency and 
weakness in the powers and properties of the Verb, and will assist in ex- 
plaining that these parts, as they might be called, instead of Participles, 
are chiefly used as other Parts of Speech. Page 99 has numerous illustra- 
tions of the use of the Present Participle as a Noun; and its office as an 
Adjective can be represented in the same manner. The Past Participle, 
as an Adjective, is illustrated with copious examples on page 102. These 
can be continued, at the discretion of the teacher, until the pupils are all 
quite familiar with these modifications of the Verb. The combination that 
forms the Past Participle, "been persuading," is never used alone, being 
only found in the Perfect Tenses, or those that contain some form of the 
Verb have. The Infinitive, as a Noun, is illustrated on pp. 95, 96, 97, 
and 98. 



60 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



COMMON FORM. 

See pages 61 and 62. 
EX. LXXXVI. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. /pay the money. 

Pres. Perf. /have sawed the wood. 

Past. /killed the chicken. 

Past Perf. /had answered the letter. 

Future. /shall extract the cube root. 

Fut. Perf. /shall have discharged the debt. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. /may procure assistance. 

Pres. Perf. I may have said it. 

Past. /might use a pencil. 

Past Perf. /might have lost the money. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For me) to help the stranger. 
Pres. Perf. (For me) to have opened the safe. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. (The First Person is wanting.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Carrying. 
Past. Broken. 

Perfect. Having done. 



Here the First Personal Pronoun is used as the Subject; and as the person 
speaking cannot address himself, except in a modified sense, the Imperative 
of the First Person is " wanting." The Participles are given alone in their 
simplest form. The Verb used in each different Tense has been varied, and 
the Exercise will serve as a model for similar Exercises. The teacher should 
insist upon a continual variety in the selection of the Verbs used. This will 
secure* a knowledge, on the part of each pupil, of a large number of the most 
important words in the English language, and will at the same time increase 
his power of expression in three-fold ratio. The Exercises should be both 
oral and written, and each one should be required to present his sentence in 
the Common, Passive, and Progressive Forms. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



63 



PASSIVE FORM. 

See pages GO and 62. 
EX. LXXXVIL 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. The money is paid by me. 

Pres. Per/. The wood has been sawed by me. 

Past. The chicken was killed by me. 

Past Per/. The letter had been answered by me. 

Future. The cube root will be extracted by me. 

Fut. Per/. The debt will have been discharged by me. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. Assistance may be procured by me. 

Pres. Perf. It may have been said by me. 

Past. A pencil might be used by me. 

Past Perf. The money might have been lost by me. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For the stranger) to be helped by me. 
Pres. Perf. (For the safe) to have been opened by me. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Money! Be paid ! 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being carried. 
Past. Been broken. 

Perfect. Having been done. 

Now we see that the Imperative Mood is restored in the Passive; and the 
word " money," which before was Third Person, becomes Second Person, be- 
cause it is addressed as if personified. The defective nature of the Partici- 
ples can here be easily shown, as they can only be used in the capacity of 
modifying phrases. The pupils may be required to write sentences with Par- 
ticipial Phrases. The Present Participle, above given, can be embodied in a 
sentence as follows: " The child, being frightened by the loud noise, and be- 
ing carried in the arms of its father, cried aloud and called for its mother." 
The Past Participle cannot even perform the function of a phrase, but its im- 
portant office may be pointed out in each of the Perfect Tenses. Sentences 
such as the following should be called for to illustrate the use of the Perfect 
Participle in the form of a Participial Phrase: "The work, having been done 
carelessly and improperly, had to be performed a second time." 



62 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



PROGKESSIVE FORM. 

See pages 60 and 61. 
EX. LXXXVIII. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present . I am paying the money. 

Pres. Perf, /have been sawing the wood. 

Past. I was killing the chicken. 

Past Perf. I had been answering the letter. 

Future. /shall be extracting the cube root. 

Fat. Perf. I shall have been discharging the debt. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. I may be procuring assistance. 
Pres. Perf. 1 may have been saying it. 
Past. I might be using a pencil. 

Past Perf I might have been losing money. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. (For me) to be helping the stranger. 
Pres. Perf. (For me) to have been opening the safe. 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

Present. (The First Person is wanting.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being paying. 

Past. Been paying (combination for Perfect Tenses). 

Perfect. Having been paying. 



The Past Participle, being employed only in the construction of the pre- 
ceding portions of the Verb, as shown above, is not capable of any combina- 
tion in a separate form. It is used solely in the Perfect Tenses of the differ- 
ent Moods. The Present Participle, Progressive Form, is of very rare occur- 
rence. Its use can best be illustrated by the analogy of such a sentence as, 
"Being busy, I cannot attend to you just now." Substituting the Preposi- 
tional Phrase, "at work," for the word " busy," we have: " Being at work, 
I cannot attend to you just now." By making yet another change, substitu- 
ting " working " for " at work " (which is clearly its signification), we have: 
" Beijjg working, I can not attend to you just now." The teacher, to be 
successful, must exercise great ingenuity in illustrating points that are diffi- 
cult of explanation. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 63 

COMMON, PASSIVE, PROGRESSIVE, AND EMPHATIC. 

EX. LXXXIX. 
Com. He sharpens the saw with a file. 
Pass. The saw is sharpened with a file (by him). 
Prog. He is sharpening the saw with a file. 
Emph. He does sharpen the saw with a file. 

Com. The wind blows the dust about. 

Pass. The dust is blown about by the wind. 

Prog. The wind is blowing the dust about. 

Emph. The wind does blow the dust about. 

Com. The ship sails on the ocean. 

Pass. Wanting. 

Prog. The ship is sailing on the ocean. 

Emph. The ship does sail on the ocean. 

Com. Your brother picked the flowers. 

Pass. The flowers were picked by your brother. 

Prog. Your brother was picking the flowers. 

Emph. Your brother did pie£ the flowers. 

Com. My father has built houses this summer. 

Pass. Houses have been built by my father this summer. 

Prog. My father has been building houses this summer. 

Emph. My father has built houses this summer. 

Com. He has cut the paper too small. 
Pass. The paper has been cut too small (by Mm). 
Prog. He has been cutting the paper too small. 
Emph. He has cut the paper too small. 

Com. William, assist James while I am away. 

Pass. James, be assisted by William while I am away. 

Prog. William, be assisting James while I am away. 

Emph. William, do assist James while I am away. 

The examples in this Exercise are sufficient to show the great utility of a 
thorough knowledge of the four styles of expression here employed. Some- 
times one will be found more appropriate to a special occasion than another. 
A great command of language can be obtained in this manner. 



64 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMMON, PASSIVE, PEOGKESSIYE, AND EMPHATIC. 

EX. XC. 

Com. She killed the bird accidentally. 

Pass. The bird was accidentally killed (by her). 

Prog. Wanting. 

Emph. She did kill the bird accidentally. 

Com. /had already extinguished the gaslight. 

Pass. The gaslight had already been extinguished (by me). 

Prog. Wanting. 

Emph. /had already extinguished the gaslight. 

Com. The train arrived at five o'clock. 

Pass. Wanting. 

Prog. Wanting. 

Emph. The train did arrive at five o'clock. 

Com. This boy works too hard. 

Pass. Wanting. 

Prog. This boy is working too hard. 

Emph. This boy does work too hard. 

Com. O! all nations! Adore the great Creator! 

Pass. O ! great Creator! Be adored by all nations! 

Prog. O ! all nations! Be adoring the great Creator! 

Emph. O! all nations! Do adore the great Creator! 

Com. It is impossible for me to pay the money. 

Pass. It is impossible for the money to be paid (by me). 

Prog. Wanting. 

Emph. It is impossible for me to pay the money. 

Com. His brother died last week. 

Pass. Wanting. 

Prog. Wanting. 

Emph. His brother did die last week. 



It is absolutely essential for the teacher, after completing this and the 
preceding lesson, to assign sentences from any of the other Exercises, or oth- 
ers that can easily be constructed, for the purpose of repeating the process 
here set forth. Copious Exercises are^ necessary to secure such a thorough 
knowledge as will enable the pupil to acquire grace and elegance of expression. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 65 

TWO NOMINATIVES FOR SAME PERSON OR THING. 

To be taken with the following page. 

EX. XCI. 

This vast power or force was stored up in the coal for ages. 

It is now utilized in moving a ponderous steam engine. 

These pathetic words were uttered in the most eloquent manner. 

They filled the vast audience with enthusiasm. 

The clouds and shadows reminded us that we must return. 

They succeeded the glorious sunset beyond the mountains. 

A perilous adventure caused the death of Sir John Franklin. 

It was undertaken in the interests of science alone. 

The rain storm often produces great destruction. 

It is nevertheless necessary to cause the seeds to germinate. 

EX. XCII. 

Those people are often at fault themselves. 

They continually persist in criticising others. 

None of these oranges may be perfectly ripe. 

They came by steamer from the South Sea Islands. 

We ought to give them the benefit of our experience. 

We know the danger of such an imprudent course. 

All the fruit must be sold as soon as possible. 

It has been damaged by the rain-storm. 

The preceding word or phrase is called the antecedent. 

It is represented by the Relative Pronoun. 

EX. XCIII. 

Those corrections were not at all necessary. 

They were made in the books yesterday by your brother. 

All the "words should be carefully selected and arranged. 

They are used to express our thoughts to each other. 

I succeeded in writing all the words correctly in my book. 

I had comparatively little knowledge of Grammar. 

He will surely meet with trouble some time. 

He knows the right, but persists in doing wrong. 

Three of the political doctrines are addition, division, and silence. 

These appear to be very popular at the present time. 

In each pair of sentences the same person or thing is twice represented by 
a Noun or Pronoun in the Nominative Case. Where it is possible, the second 
sentence of each pair should be converted into a Relative Clause, and inserted 
within the first. 



66 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SECOND NOMINATIVE AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 

EX. XCI. 

This vast power or force, "which is now utilized in moving a 

ponderous steam engine, was stored up in the coal for ages. 
These pathetic words, which filled the vast audience with 

enthusiasm, were uttered in the most eloquent manner. 
The clouds and shadows, that succeeded the glorious sunset 

beyond the mountains, reminded us that we must return. 
A perilous adventure, which was undertaken in the interests 

of science alone, caused the death of Sir John Franklin. 
The rain-storm, "which is nevertheless necessary to cause the 

seeds to germinate, often produces great destruction. 

EX. XCII. 

Those people who continually persist in criticising others are 
often at fault themselves. 

None of these oranges, which came by steamer from the 
South Sea Islands, may be perfectly ripe. 

We, who know the danger of such an imprudent course, 
ought to give them the benefit of our experience. 

All the fruit which has been damaged by the rain-storm must 
be sold as soon as possible. 

The preceding word or phrase that is represented by the Rel- 
ative Pronoun is called the antecedent. 

EX. XCIII. 

Those corrections that were made in the books yesterday by 
your brother were not at all necessary. 

All the words that are used to express our thoughts to each 
other should be carefully selected and arranged. 

I, "who had comparatively little knowledge of Grammar, suc- 
ceeded in writing all the words correctly in my book. 

He who knows the right but persists in doing wrong will 
surely meet with trouble some time. 

Three of the political doctrines which appear to be very pop- 
ular at the present time are addition, division, and silence. 

When commas are used to punctuate the Complex Sentence, they should 
be placed immediately before and after the words that constitute the Rela- 
tive Clause. Sometimes, however, they are entirely superfluous. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 67 

TWO OBJECTIVES USED FOR THE SAME PERSON 
OR THING. 

EX. XCIV. 
I saw many persons at the theater last night. 
I had never seen them before. 
They completed the pictures a year ago. 
They sent them to the exhibition yesterday. 
He spoiled all the letters by carelessness. 
He wrote them on the paper during the lesson. 
I respect all men, whether rich or poor. 
But I must know them to be truly honorable. 
The wolves devoured all the sheep and lambs. 
They found them unprotected on the prairie. 

EX. XCV. 
You see that bird in a cage at the window. 
I caught it yesterday with a snare. 
He bought the wheat at very high rates last winter. 
"We sold it all in order to realize money. 
We can find many words on this page. 
You can pronounce any of them at sight. 
The windows admit the light into this room. 
We receive it all from the sun and other sources. 
You shot a pigeon, last week, on the street. 
He valued it at more than twenty dollars. 

EX. XCVI. 
We met several travelers on the road to town. 
I asked every one how far it was. 
You drove some nails into the fence yesterday. 
He bought them at the hardware store. 
I found that address in the directory. 
I wanted to obtain it for a friend. 
They found a poor, destitute old lady on the street. 
They concluded to send her to the almshouse. 
I have composed all these sentences this evening. 
To-morrow I shall write them all in my book. 

In many of these pairs of sentences it will produce a much more harmoni- 
ous effect to insert the first of the two that are to be combined, as a Relative 
Clause, within the second. 



68 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

ONE OBJECTIVE AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

EX. XCIV. 
I saw many persons whom I had never seen before at the 

theater last night. 
They completed the pictures that they sent to the exhibition 

yesterday, a year ago. 
He spoiled all the letters that he wrote on the paper during 

the lesson by carelessness. 
I respect all men whom I know to be truly honorable, whether 

rich or poor. 
The wolves devoured all the sheep and lambs that they found 

unprotected on the prairie. 

EX. XCV. 
I caught that bird, which you see in a cage at the window, 

yesterday with a snare. 
We sold all that wheat, which he bought at very high rates 

last winter, in order to realize money. 
You can pronounce any of the many words that we can find 

on this page at sight. 
We receive all the light that the windows admit into this room 

from the sun and other sources. 
He valued that pigeon, -which you shot last week on the street, 

at more than twenty dollars. 

EX. XCVI. 

I asked every traveler, whom we met on the road to town, 
how far it was. 

He bought those nails that you drove into the fence yester- 
day, at the hardware store. 

I wanted to obtain that address, "which I found in the direc- 
tory, for a friend. 

They concluded to send a poor, destitute old lady, whom 
they found on the street, to the almshouse. 

To-morrow I shall write all the sentences that I have com- 
posed this evening in my book. 

When a very intimate relation exists between the principal and subordi- 
nate propositions, it is often unnecessary to use commas to separate the lat- 
ter from the former. This is more particularly the case when "that" is 
used. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 69 

NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE EELATED TOGETHEK. 

EX. XCVII. 
These birds were brought from the coast of Africa. 
The captain of the Gem of the Ocean presented them to me. 
Two men called upon me yesterday afternoon. 
I recognized them as former associates and schoolmates. 
A young man caused a great disturbance. 
The policemen were endeavoring to arrest him. 
Some of our best horses have fallen victims to the disease. 
We had refused to sell them even at high figures. 
That man has an excellent reputation as a builder. 
They employed him to-day to build their house. 

EX. XCVIII. 
Those questions rarely occur in actual business. 
You find them so very difficult to solve. 
Numerous applicants made their appearance. 
The previous Board of Examiners had rejected them all. 
The storm has purified the atmosphere nicely. 
You disliked it so much at the time. 
Your pen must now be placed in proper position. 
You hold it in such an awkward manner. 
Every one told me an entirety different story. 
I asked several to describe the occurrence. 

EX. XCIX. 
You may occasionally find money in the street. 
All of it will not make you rich. 
We met many people on the road to the city. 
They all disagreed about the distance. 
You tore that paper to pieces and threw it away. 
It contained some of my valuable memoranda. 
I sent a letter by mail to the South Sea Islands. 
It was sealed with wax and stamped. 
We rescued a boy from drowning last summer. 
He was afterwards struck by lightning and killed. 

Here the same word that is used in the Nominative Case in one sentence 
of each pair has a corresponding word in the Objective Case in the other. 
The sentence containing the Objective is intended for the Relative Clause. 



70 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

THE OBJECTIVE AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
EX. XCVII. 

These birds, which the captain of the Gem of the Ocean pre- 
sented to me, were brought from the coast of Africa. 

Two men, whom I recognized as former associates and school- 
mates, called upon me yesterday afternoon. 

A young man "whom the policemen were endeavoring to ar- 
rest caused a great disturbance. 

Some of our best horses, that we had refused to sell even at 
high figures, have fallen victims to the disease. 

That man whom they employed to-day to build their house 
has an excellent reputation as a builder. 

EX. XCVIII. 

Those questions that you find so very difficult to solve rarely 
occur in actual business. 

Numerous applicants, all 0/ whom the previous Board of Ex- 
aminers had rejected, made their appearance. 

The storm, ■which you disliked so much at the time, has puri- 
fied the atmosphere nicely. 

Your pen, "which you hold in such an awkward manner, must 
now be placed in proper position. 

Every one "whom I asked to describe the occurrence told me 
an entirely different story. 

EX. XCIX. 

All the money that you may occasionally find in the street will 
not make you rich. 

All the people "whom we met on the road to the city disagreed 
about the distance . 

That paper -which you tore to pieces and threw away contained 
some of my valuable memoranda. 

A letter that I sent by mail to the South Sea Islands was 
sealed with wax and stamped. 

A boy whom we rescued from drowning last summer was 
afterwards struck by lightning and killed. 

The tendency among modern writers is to omit altogether the use of com- 
mas or other punctuation marks unless actually indispensably necessary to 
avoid confusion or ambiguous construction. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 71 

AN OBJECTIVE AND A NOMINATIVE BELATED TO 
EACH OTHEK. 

EX. 0. 

I unlocked the drawer with another key. 

It contained all my books, papers, and documents. 

She will derive much pleasure from her visit home. 

It could not be obtained in any other way. 

He can make an investment with a very small sum. 

This investment will afford a handsome profit. 

You must bu}' the paint at the drug store. 

It is required for the front of the house. 

The company will soon discharge all those men. 

They were connected with the late " strike." 

EX. 01. 

He treats those people with great indifference. 

They tried to injure his reputation and his business. 

Your friends have received a letter from Paris. 

It contains a draft for four thousand francs. 

We saw a meteor shooting across the sky. 

It exceeded a star of the first magnitude in brilliancy. 

He discovered this valuable mine by accident. 

It has already yielded a million dollars. 

I gave him a receipt when the money was paid. 

It was signed by the president and myself. 

EX. OIL 
These "words appeared upon the face of the document. 
I can remember them all quite distinctly. 
This coal is used in the mills and factories. 
They bring it from great distances by sea. 
Much benefit must result from an ocean voyage. 
You will derive all this benefit if you go. 
Some merchandise remains on hand in the store. 
He must sell it all for cash only. 
His umbrella was worth seventeen dollars.- 
He exchanged it for an inferior one while absent. 

That sentence, in each pair, which contains the Nominative Case of the 
Noun or Pronoun that is repeated, is intended to be converted into a Rela- 
tive Clause and inserted after the Objective Antecedent. 



72 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

THE NOMINATIVE AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

EX. C. 

I unlocked the drawer that contained all my books, papers, 
and documents, with another key. 

She will derive much pleasure that could not be obtained in 
any other way from her visit home. 

He can make an investment that will afford a handsome 
profit with a very small sum. 

You must buy the paint that is required for the front of the 
house at the drug store. 

The company will soon discharge all those men who were con- 
nected with the late " strike." 

EX. CI. . 

He treats those people who tried to injure his reputation and 

his business with great indifference. 
Your friends have received a letter that contains a draft for 

four thousand francs from Paris. 
We saw a meteor that exceeded a star of the first magnitude 

in brilliancy shooting across the sky. 
He discovered this valuable mine, which has already yielded 

a million dollars, by accident. 
I gave him a receipt, which was signed by the president and 

myself, when the money was paid. 
EX. CII. 
I can remember all these words which appeared upon the 

face of the document quite distinctly. 
They bring this coal which is used in the mills and factories 

from great distances by sea. 
You will derive all the benefit that must result from an ocean 

voyage if you go. 
He must sell all the merchandise that remains on hand in the 

store for cash only. 
He exchanged his umbrella, -which was worth seventeen dol- 
lars, for an inferior one, while absent. 

If the commas head been omitted from the ninth sentence, the meaning 
would be very ambiguous. It might be construed to mean that the money 
had been yielded by accident, 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 73 

SIMPLE SENTENCES, PBOMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CHI. 
The aeorns fall to the ground from the oak. 
Every one may produce a flourishing shade tree. 
The rain is falling upon the grass and flowers. 
It once existed in the depths of the ocean. 
That boy might have become a useful man. 
He was sent to the penitentiary last week. 
That old carpet still covers the floor of our room. 
It has been worn for a long time. 
The leaves periodically drop from the trees. 
They are always replaced by new ones. 

EX. CIV. 
Mother bought a book for me last night. 
This morning the baby completely destroyed it. 
We met that gentleman at the Sunday-school. 
She introduced him to your brother this morning. 
Yesterday he went to the bank and paid the money. 
He borrowed it there several months ago. 
You receive money from the company for your salary. 
You might have given some of it to your sister. 
We visited the place on our way to the city. 
It is the prettiest and coolest on the whole route. 

EX. CV. 
You can see beautiful scenery on a clear day. 
It always leri'ds a charm to the view. 
He struck the man on the head with a club. 
The man struck him on the arm with his cane. 
She liberally rewarded the poor old man. 
He caught her runaway horse and saved her life. 
My new hat has been spoiled by the rain. 
I bought it only two days ago. 
He described the occurrence in good language. 
He witnessed it at the house of your friend. 

That sentence, in each pair, may be used for the Kelative Clause which 
will produce the most natural and euphonious combination. Additional Ex- 
ercises, composed by the class, should now be required, 
4 



74 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

RELATIVE PKONOUNS SUBSTITUTED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CIII. 

Every aeorn that falls to the ground from the oak may pro- 
duce a flourishing shade tree. 

The rain that is falling upon the grass and flowers once existed 
in the depths of the ocean. 

That boy, who might have become a useful man, was seDt to 
the penitentiary last week. 

That old carpet, which has been worn for a long time, still 
covers the floor of our room. 

The leaves, which periodically drop from the trees, are always 
replaced by new ones. 

EX. CIV. 

This morning the baby completely destroyed the book that 
mother bought for me last night. 

She introduced that gentleman whom we met at the Sunday- 
school to your brother this morning. 

Yesterday he went to the bank and paid the money "which he 
borrowed there several months ago. 

You might have given some of the money that you receive 
from the company for your salary to your sister. 

The place which we visited on our way to the city is the pret- 
tiest and coolest on the whole route. 

EX. CV. 

The beautiful scenery "which you can see on a clear day 
always lends a charm to the view. 

The man whom he struck on the head with a club struck him 
him on the arm with a cane. 

She liberally rewarded the poor old man who caught her run- 
away horse and saved her life. 

I bought my new hat, which has been spoiled by the rain, 
only two days ago. 

He described in good language the occurrence that he wit- 
nessed at the house of your friend. 

Although, in the great majority of sentences, "that" is preferable to 
"who " or "which," and, indeed, indispensable to indicate that the clause is 
restrictive in its meaning, sometimes we prefer not to use it. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 75 

OBJECTIVE AFTER PREPOSITION AND NOMINATIVE. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CVI. 
The little boy had just lost his mother. 
I gave the money to him last week. 
That bottle was cracked in two places. 
You put the wine into it yesterday. 
The man went away on the ocean steamer. 
I spoke to you about him several days ago. 
The windows are made of glass. 
The light enters our dwellings through them. 
The Australian steamer left the pier at two o'clock. 
Our friends sailed on that steamer. 

EX. CVII. 
The ink was manufactured in Boston. 
These words were written with it. 
My studies consume all my time. 
I am obliged to give constant attention to them. 
I found the book in the Mechanics' Library. 
You obtained that information from it. 
She bought the needles in Calcutta, Hindostan. 
She sewed those shirts with them. 
The man lives in Minneapolis, Minnesota. 
I bought this horse from him. 

EX. CVIII. 
That well was dug by two Chinamen. 
You obtained the water from it this morning. 
The "white men abandoned the contract. 
I employed the Chinamen to work with the white men. 
That woman is a poor invalid widow. 
You gave your money to her just now. 
The Traders' Bank was entered and robbed. 
He deposits his money in that bank. 
Those men came here a long time ago. 
He sold his property to them to-day. 

Select the Preposition having the Noun or Pronoun in the Objective and 
place it directly after the antecedent, followed by "whom" or "which" as a 
Relative Pronoun, lout never by "that." " Whom " is used only for persons. 
See sec. 75, p. 128.' 



76 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

THE OBJECTIVE AS A EELATIVE PRONOUN. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CVI. 
The little boy to whom I gave the money last week had just 

lost his mother. 
That bottle into which you put the wine yesterday was 

cracked in two places. 
The man about whom I spoke to you several days ago went 

away on the ocean steamer. 
The windows, through which the light enters our dwell- 
ings, are made of glass. 
The Australian steamer, on which our friends sailed, left the 
pier at two o'clock. 

EX. CVII. 

The ink -with which these words were written was manufac- 
tured in Boston. 

My studies, to "which I am obliged to give constant attention, 
consume all my time. 

I found the book from which you obtained that information in 
the Mechanics' Library. 

She bought the needles with which she sewed those shirts in 
Calcutta, Hindostan. 

The man from -whom I bought this horse lives in Minneapo- 
lis, Minnesota. 

EX. CVIII. 

That well from ■which you obtained the water this morning 
was dug by two Chinamen*. 

The white men with whom I employed them to work aban- 
doned the contract. 

That woman to whom you gave your money just now is a 
poor invalid widow. 

The Traders' Bank, in which he deposits his money, was en- 
tered and robbed. 

Those men to whom he sold his property to-day came here a 
long time ago. 

This page should be studied previous to writing the Exercises, but the 
Complex Sentences must not be copied. After being written without refer- 
ring to the correct form, the book should only be used to make corrections. 
Writing by dictation i* preferable. See Introduction. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 77 

"THAT" AND "AS" FOR "WHO" OR "WHICH." 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CIX. 

He that expected little and realized much must have been agree- 
ably disappointed. 

I will admit only such persons as are entitled to be present. 

We can not accomplish all that is required of us for want of 
time. 

We can not possibly understand such arguments as he has pre- 
sented. 

The one that wins the prize ivill be considered the best. 

EX. CX. 

It is very difficult to account for such facts as we have wit- 
nessed. 

He that rejoices at his neighbor's misfortunes will himself have 
no sympathy. 

They could not subsist upon such food as they were compelled 
to eat. » 

Out of all that we examined this evening only five were perfect. 

Such doctrines as are propagated by this man will lead to infi- 
delity. 

EX. CXI. 

Every one that was rejected by our agent was accepted by 
them. 

I am astonished that such utterances as he gives forth are tol- 
erated. 

The book that you selected for me will not answer my purpose. 

We can not see such small figures as he places upon the black- 
board. 

f£ I that speak unto thee am he." 



The Relative Pronoun "as" is only an exceptional form, used with the Ad- 
jective " sucn," and forms one of the many idioms of the English language. 
None of the Indefinite Adjective Pronouns given on p. 130, sec. 89, except 
"such," can be so used, and the use of this word probably originated in 
some provincialism that became permanent. 



78 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

RELATIVE PBONOUNS ELIMINATED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CIX. 
He must have been agreeably disappointed. 
He expected little and realized much. 
Some persons are entitled to be present. 
I will admit only such persons. 
A certain result is required of us. 
We can not accomplish it all for want of time. 
He has presented certain arguments. 
"We can not possibly understand them. 
One of them will win the prize. 
This one will be considered the best. 

EX. CX. 

We have witnessed some wonderful facts. 
It is very difficult to account for them. 
He rejoices at his neighbor's misfortunes. 
He will himself have no sympathy. * 
They were compelled to eat inferior food. 
They could not subsist upon it. 
Only five out of all were perfect. 
We examined them this evening. 
Such doctrines will lead to infidelity. 
They are propagated by this man. 

EX. CXI. 
Some of them were rejected by our agent. 
Every one of these was accepted by them. 
He gives forth such utterances. 
I am astonished that they are tolerated. 
You selected this book for me. 
It will not answer my purpose. 
He places such small figures upon the blackboard. 
We can not see them. 
I am he. 
I speak unto thee. 

Here the process hns been reversed. The Complex Sentences have been re- 
solved into Simple ones; and instead of building up, we have been tearing 
down or taking to pieces what had previously been constructed. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 79 

SIMPLE SENTENCES WITHOUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

See the two following pages; also, page 125. 
EX. CXII. 
You find many things to do each day. 
Do these things as quickly as possible. 
This matter now occupies my attention. 
It does not concern you in any way. 
You said something just now. 
I positively know it. 
Many things can be done to-day. 
Do not put them off till to-morrow. 
Those affairs possess the highest importance. 
They do not always attract the greatest attention. 

EX. CXIII. 
He had done something to the ink. 
"We discovered it without difficulty. 
You said something to him just now. 
It will offend him very much. 
Many a thing is absolutely impossible. 
It ought never to be undertaken. 
The architect has designed beautiful plans. 
I intend to carry out his plans. 
Many important events took place last year. 
He very quickly forgot them all. 

EX. CXIV. 
Many things are known to be injurious. 
They should be carefully avoided. 
They maliciously reported something about you. 
"We would not pay any attention to it. 
That gives my friends the greatest amount of pleasure. 
I shall always do it. 

Many a thing is very difficult to perform. 
It deserves the greatest credit after it has been accom- 
He gave away all the money to others. fplished. 

It teas given to him by his friends. 

After these Sentences have been written, they are to be taken in pairs and 
converted into Complex Sentences, as on the preceding pages, with the de- 
sign of still further changing them into others having Compound Relative 
Pronouns, instead of Simple. 



80 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SIMPLE EELATIVE PKONOUNS. 

See preceding and following pages. 
EX. CXII. 

Do as quickly as possible those things which you find to do 
each day. 

This matter "which now occupies my attention does not con- 
cern you in any way. 

I know positively the thing that you said just now. 

Do not put off till to-morro~w those things which can be done 
to-day. 

Those affairs that possess the highest importance do not always 
attract the greatest attention. 

EX. CXIIL 

We discovered without difficulty something that he had done 
to the ink. 

Something that you said to him just now will offend him very 
much. 

Anything that is absolutely impossible ought not to be un- 
dertaken. 

I intend to carry out the beautiful plans which the architect 
has designed. 

He very quickly forgot many important events which took 
place last year. 

EX. CXIV. 

Those things that are known to be injurious shoidd be carefully 
avoided. 

We would not pay any attention to that which they mali- 
ciously reported about you. 

I shall alwa}rs do that "which gives my friends the greatest 
amount of pleasure. 

That which is most difficult to perform deserves the greatest 
credit after it has been accomplished. 

He gave away to others all that was given to him by his friends. 

These Sentences should first be constructed without reference to the book, 
and afterwards compared and corrected. A further change is now required 
to be made by substituting the Compound Relative Pronoun "what" for the 
Simple Relative and Antecedent. The modifiers of the Antecedent, of course, 
must disappear. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 81 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

See the two preceding pages. 
EX. CXII. 
Do as quickly as possible whatever you find to do each day. 
What now occupies my attention does not concern you in any 

way. 
I know positively "what you said just now. 
Do not put off till to-morrow (what) can be done to-day. 
What possesses the highest importance does not always attract 
the greatest attention. 

EX. CXIII. 

We discovered without difficulty "what he had done to the ink. 

What you said to him just now will offend him very much. 

What is absolutely impossible ought not to be undertaken. 

I intend to carry out what the architect has designed. 

He very quickly forgot "what took place last year. 

EX. CXIV. 

What is known to be injurious should be carefully avoided. 

We would not pay any attention to what they maliciously re- 
ported about you. 

I shall always do "what gives my friends the greatest amount of 
pleasure. 

What is most difficult to perform deserves the greatest credit 
after it has been accomplished. 

He gave away to others "what ivas given to him by his friends. 

The principal object that we have in view in constructing Sentences in this 
form is brevity and compactness. A comparison of each one with those from 
which it has been constructed will at once render this apparent. The class 
may now be required to write a large number of additional Sentences, con- 
tinually varying the materials from which they are formed, until they have 
acquired a sufficient degree of proficiency. The teacher may suggest sub- 
jects for the Sentences, and the Compound Relative Pronoun should be used 
in all the different constructions that are possible. These are, first, two Nom- 
inatives ; second, two Objectives ; third, a Nominative and an Objective; 
and fourth, an Objective and a Nominative. The Passive and Progressive 
Forms should be used in their construction as well as the Common or Ac- 
tive. Each pupil should be required to explain each of these different forms, 
where used, and to substitute the others where possible. The more frequent 
and thorough these Exercises are made, the greater will be the progress and 
profit. 



82 PEINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COMPOUND RELATIVES, " WHOEVER," " WHATEVER," 

ETC. 

To be taken with the two following pages; see page 125. 
EX. CXV. 
He will most solemnly swear to whatever you may say. 
I shall gladly accept "whichever you may be pleased to give me. 
Whoever gave you that pen knew that it was perfectly useless. 
Whichever you first obtain you may bring to me for examina- 
tion. 
Whatever you may find on the street has been lost by some one 

else. 

EX. CXVI. 

"We shall handsomely reward "whoever gives us the desired in- 
formation. 

A man will most certainly reap whatsoever he may have sown. 

Whosoever givelh you a cup of water shall surely receive his re- 
ward. 

Whichever is the shortest and most direct is the best trail. 

I shall certainly approve of whatever you may do in my ab- 
sence. 

EX. CXVII. 

After thirty days I will reimburse "whoever will advance the 
money. 

You may keep for yourself whichever you may select from 
among them. 

In "whatever he undertakes to do he is almost sure to succeed. 

Whoever he asks for a favor is sure to expect another in re- 
turn. 

Whichever commands the highest price is the one to sell first. 

These Sentences are already in their most complex form. The first step is 
to displace the Compound Relative Pronouns by inserting Simple Pronouns 
with appropriate Antecedents, such as may be found on the following page. 
The Definitions on p. 128 will aid in doing this. Lessons should be assigned 
for study from Part II. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 83 

SIMPLE KELATIYE PBONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 

To be taken with the preceding and following pages. 
EX. CXV. 
He will most solemnly swear to anything that you may say. 
I shall gladly accept the one that you may be pleased to give 

me. 
The person that gave you that pen knew that it was perfectly 

useless. 
You may bring to me for examination that result which you 

first obtain. 

Anything that you may find on the street will have been lost by 

some one else. 

EX. CXVI. 

We shall handsomely reward any one who gives us the desired 
information. 

A man will most certainly reap that which he may have soivn. 

He that giveth you a cup of water shall surely receive his re- 
ward. 

The one which is the shortest and most direct is the best trail. 

I shall certainly approve of anything that you may do in my 

absence. 

EX. CXVII. 

After thirty days I will reimburse any man that will advance 

the money. 
You may keep for yourself the one that you may select from 

among them. 
In everything that he undertakes to do he is almost sure to 

succeed. 
Any one whom he asks for a favor is sure to expect another in 

return. 
That which commands the highest price is the one to sell first. 

The teacher should dictate from page 82, and the class write on their slates 
or paper as on this page. If the Sentences that are written are correct in 
construction and meaning, even if not precisely similar to those given above, 
they should not be rejected, but rather accepted, as a means of encouraging 
original thought. 



84 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

KESOLYED INTO SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

To be taken with the two pi-eceding pages. 
EX. CXV. 
You may say anything. 
He will most solemnly swear to it. 
You may be pleased to give me something. 
I shall gladly accept it. 
Some person gave you that pen. 
He knew that it was perfectly useless. 
You will obtain the first result. 
You may bring it to me for examination. 
You may find something on the street. 
It will have been lost by some one else. 

EX. CXVI. 

Some one may give us the desired information. 
We shall handsomely reward him. 
Every one sows something. 
He will most certainly reap the same. 
Some one will give you a cup of water. 
• He shall surely receive his reward. 

One of the trails is shorter and more direct. 
It is the best. 

You may do many things in my absence. 
I shall certainly approve of everything. 

EX. CXVII. 

Some man will advance the money. 

After thirty days I ivill reimburse him. 

You may select one from among them. ' 

You may keep it for yourself. 

He undertakes lo do many things. 

He is almost sure to succeed in them all. 

He asks many a person for a favor. 

Each one is sure to expect another in return. 

One vrill command a higher price than the others. 

That is- the one to sell first. 

Here we have the Simple Sentences into which the Complex ones are capa- 
ble of being resolved. They must not be regarded, however, as the only 
ones that could be used in the original construction. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 85 

SENTENCES TO BE COREECTED OR CHANGED. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXVIII. 
/and you will be there. 
I will drown and nobody shall save me. 
I shall accept either, but you will have neither. 
Heaven and earth! That is temporary — this is eternal! 
An angel from heaven appeared there. 
A celebrated king named Alfred lived there. 
Place one on one side and one on the other. 
As we swept along every tree seemed tlie center of a circle. 
All the trees in the orchard ivas laden with fruit. 
There is the apple and the pear; you may have all. 

EX. CXIX. 
He is taller than me and you. 
She is calling you or I. 
Each one loves the other dearly. 
One of those boys will hurt another. 
Some asserted their innocence; more confessed. 
Neither the one or the other will do. 
A person cannot imagine how pleasant it is. 
Some prefer one thing, others another. 
It is often dangerous to express our opinion. 
I know this is true, because he said it. 

EX. CXX. 
Is there any to help me ? 
If you are an honest man, continue one. 
He puts his trust in some other. 
He loved the little things tenderly. 
All say that he is dead. 

You call the study of the heavens astronomy. 
I know the man that you spoke of. 
I have but two; you must take all or none. 
Many commit suicide, many are killed, and many die natu- 
Every one of our breaths are numbered. f rally. 

The Pules of Syntax given in Part IV. will be found applicable to many of 
these examples. In a few of these examples no actual error may exist, yet 
some different idea may be conveyed by a change. 



86 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

COBBECTIONS AND PKEFEEABLE CONSTRUCTIONS. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXVIII. 
You and I will be there. 
I shall drown and nobody will save me. 
I will accept either, but you shall have neither. 
Heaven and earth! This is temporary — that is eternal! 
There appeared an angel from heaven. 
There lived a celebrated king named Alfred. 
Place one on each side. 

As we swept along each tree seemed the center of a circle. 
Every tree in the orchard was laden with fruit. 
There are the apple and the pear, you may have both. 

EX. CXIX. 
He is taller than you or I. 
She is calling either you or me. 
They love each other dearly. 
Those boys will hurt one another. 
Some asserted their innocence; others confessed. 
Neither the one nor the other will do. 
One can not imagine how pleasant it is. 
One perfers one thing; another, another. 
It is often dangerous to express one's opinion. 
I know this is true, because he said so. 

EX. CXX. 

Is there none to help me? 

If you are an honest man, continue such. 

He puts his trust in another. 

He loved the little ones tenderly. 

They say that he is dead. 

We call the study of the heavens astronomy. 

I know the man of whom you spoke. 

I have but two; you must take both or neither. 

Many commit suicide, more are killed, but most die natu- 

Our every breath is numbered. [rally. 

The English Language, more than any other, abounds in idiomatic phrase- 
ology, and is for that reason rich in expression. Often the mere change of a 
single word will convey an entirely different signification. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 87 

MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXI. 
Though he slays me, yet will I trust in him. 
Even if he preach morality, he does not practise it. 
He has the inclination to, but has no power of working. 
"If 'twere done, when 'tis done, 'twere well 'twere 
She is a friend of his. [done quickly." 

"And that tongue of his, that bade the Komans," etc. 
I intended to have paid it long ago. 
I expected last week to have seen you. 
It is a very annoying habit of mine. 
Next Christmas I shall be there a year. 

EX. CXXII. 
I will carry an umbrella, as it might rain. 
That reproof is not for you or I. 
He done all his work without assistance. 
We have went all the way for nothing. 
It is easy seen how he done it. 
'Tis true, 'tis pity; 'tis pity 'tis true. 
It was me and him that seen it. 
It is now ten days since you have came. 
Says I, " You knowed it." 
He has already, and will continue to progress rapidly. 

EX. CXXIII. 
I sung about flocks, tillage, and heroes. 
IjWill select a modern language like French and Spanish. 
I haven't done nothing at all. 
Any body in their right mind wouldn't do it. 
He done it three times before that. 
There is a boy "whom I think deserves promotion. 
You haven't got no hat on your head. 
Did I not tell you the story, and asked you to remember it? 
He has never, is not now, and never shall be considered a 
They have did it three times. [friend of mine. 

In Part IV. will be found the most important principles of Syntax, given 
in the form of Rules, which, for convenience, are numbered. 



88 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

CORRECTIONS OR DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTIONS. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXL 
" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
Even if he preaches morality, he does not practise it. 
He has the inclination but not the power to work. 
If it be done, when done, it "will be well to do it quickly. 
She is one of his friends. 
And his tongue, that bade the Romans, etc. 
I intended to pay it long ago. 
I expected last week to see you. 
It is a habit that annoys me very much. 
Next Christmas I shall have been there a year. 

EX. CXXII. 
I shall carry an umbrella, as it may rain. 
That reproof is neither for you nor me. 
He did all his work without assistance. 
"We went all the way for nothing. 
It is easily seen how he did it. 

It is true that it is a pity; it is also a pity that it is true. 
It was he and I that saw it. 
It is now ten days since you came. 

Said I, " You knew it." [to do so. 

He has already progressed rapidly, and will continue 

EX. CXXIII. 
" I sang ' flocks/ ' tillage/ ' heroes/ " 
I shall select a modern language, such as French or 
I-have not done anything. [Spanish. 

Any one in his right mind would not do it. 
He did it three times before that. 
This is a boy "who, I think, deserves promotion. 
You have no hat on. 

Did I not tell you the story and ask you to remember it ? 
He has never been, is not now, and never shall be consid- 
They have done it three times, [ered one of my friends. 

" And that tongue of his,' 1 from Shakespeare's " Jultus Caesar," is mani- 
festly only allowable by " poetic license." It makes the Possessive Form 
the Object of the Preposition. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 89 

"TO," THE SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE, SUPPRESSED. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXIV. 
Bid him come here. 
You dare not do it. 
We need have no money. 
Make him go away. 
Did you see him strike me ? 
Do you hear it rain ? . 
I feel it hurt me. 
He will not let me go. 
Can you perceive it move ? 
Why should we behold him die ? 
You may observe the planet move. 
Help us milk the cows. 
Have him wait for me. 
Did you ever watch the cat lick her paws ? 
I never knew him give a cent. 

EX. CXXV. 

Do not bid him stand at the door. 

Dar'st thou leap in and swim ? 

You ?iee<2 not fear death. 

He made me tell a lie. 

Did you see it shoot across the sky ? 

Would you Tiertr the thunder roar ? 

He does not feel the knife cut him. 

You ivill not let the fish bite. 

I did not perceive him make the mistake. 

Behold him weep ! 

Die/ you observe the procession pass ? 

TFiZZ you help me prepare my lesson ? 

We shall have him go early. 

Watch the spider eaten the fly. 

I never knew the boat wait for any one. 

The complete list of Verbs after which the Infinitive sign " to " may prop- 
erly be omitted is given in note 13, page 119. These should be committed to 
memory, and some similar lesson from the Definitions in Part II. should be 
assigned for study. In no' other way can this branch of education be made 
so attractive aud interesting. 



90 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

"TO," THE SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE, EXPRESSED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXIV. 
Ask him to come here. 
You ought not to do it. 
We require to have no money. 
Compel him to go away. 
Did you request him to strike me ? 
Do you wish it to rain ? 
I want it to hurt me. 
He will not permit me to go. 
Can you cause it to move ? 
Why should deforce him to die? 
You may expect the planet to move. 
Assist us to milk the cows. 
Request him to "wait for me. 
Did you ever expect the cat to liek her paws ? 
I never solicited him to give a cent. 

EX. CXXV. 

Do not allow him to stand at the door. 

Desirest thou to leap in and swim ? 

You ought not to fear death. 

He induced me to tell a lie. 

Did you expect it to shoot across the sky ? 

Would you desire the thunder to roar ? 

He does not want the knife to cut him. 

You will not allow the fish to bite. 

I did not cause him to make the mistake. 

Request him (not) to weep. 

Did you intend the procession to pass ? 

M/Z you force me to prepare my lesson ? 

We shall compel him to go early. 

Assist the spider to catch the fly. 

I never requested the boat to wait for any one. 

Exercises similar to this may now be given, by requiring pairs of Sen- 
tences to be written, so as to illustrate the common custom of suppressing or 
eliding the Infinitive sign. They should be constructed after the model 
given on this and the preceding page, until all the Verbs in this list are quite 
familiar. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 91 

SAME CASE BEFORE AND AFTER "BE." 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXVI. 
February is the shortest month of the year. 
The most diligent boy has been the greatest favorite. 
Rome was the most powerful city. 
The most enterprising nation had been Phoenicia. 
The eclipse will be the great event of the year. 
Our leader shall be the wisest man. 
This very man may be the successful candidate. 
The most useful medicine can be a deadly poison. 
The Friendly Islands must be the most hospitable. 
A match may have been the cause of the fire. 

EX. CXXVIL 
That man can not have been the proprietor. 
Gold must have been the circulating medium. 
The best scholars might be these girls. 
A merchant could be a politician. 
The best instrument would be a sharp knife. 
A policeman should be the doorkeeper. 
Martyrs are the victims of bigots. 
The mayor of the city could have been the governor. 
Our housekeeper would have been the best cook. 
The conductor should have been Frank Jones. 

EX. CXXVIII. 
Coin "will be the only current money. 
This man -was the applicant. 
The successful candidate was Budd. 
An ingenious contriver was the old man. 
The greatest nuisance is this old well. 
San Francisco is the most prosperous city. 
The largest city in the world is London. 
Saul "was the first king of Israel. 
All he wants must be money. 
The exhibition will be the last thing. 

In connection with these Exercises, sections 49 and 50, pages 122 and 123, 
together with the Definitions 32, 33, and 34, of Part IV., should be studied 
until they are properly understood. 



92 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SENTENCES INVERTED OR TRANSPOSED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXVL 
The shortest month of the year is February. 
The greatest favorite has "been the most diligent boy. 
The most powerful city was Rome. 
Phoenicia had been the most enterprising nation. 
The great event of the year 'will be the eclipse. 
The wisest man shall be our leader. 
The successful candidate may be this very man. 
A deadly poison can be the most useful medicine. 
The most hospitable must be the Friendly Islands. 
The cause of the fire may have been a match. 

EX. CXXYII. 
The proprietor can not have been that man. 
The circulating medium must have been gold. 
These girls might be the best scholars. 
A politician eould have been a merchant. 
A sharp knife "would be the best instrument. 
The doorkeeper should be a policeman. 
The victims of bigots are martyrs. 
The governor eould have been the mayor of the city. 
The best cook would have been our housekeeper. 
Frank Jones should have been the conductor. 

EX. CXXVIII. 

The only current money will be coin. 

The applicant "was this man. 

Budd was the successful candidate. 

The old man was an ingenious contriver. 

This old well is the greatest nuisance. 

The most prosperous city is San Francisco. 

London is the largest city in the world. 

The first king of Israel was Saul. 

Money must be all he wants. 

The last thing will be the exhibition. 

It will be observed that all the Tenses of the Finite Verb are represented, 
and in sufficient variety to demonstrate the principle illustrated. Additional 
Exercises may also be given. 



PKINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 93 

VERB "TO BE"— ABSOLUTE. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXIX. 
God is. 

He always has been. 
Troy was. 

Before Borne was, Egypt had been. 
The human spirit will be when time is not. 
Time shall be no more. 

Eternity will be after time shall have lapsed. 
I may be when this city shall have perished. 
You can be true if you persist. 
It must be, for he said so. 

EX. CXXX. 
There may have been ancient nations here. 
They can not have been elsewhere. 
Powerful kings must have been in the past. 
All these things might be. 
So great a mine could not be. 
She would be silent, though he insisted. 
" It might have been." 
We could have been rich, but would not. 
Great cities would have been there. 
This should not have been. 

EX. CXXXI. 
He said it should be, and it was. 

All men are not honest. 

They were in Paris. 

" God said, ' Let there be light,' and there was light." 

It shall not be so. 

She weeps because they are no more. 

All people should be contented. 

We are not happy. 

We shall soon be no more. 

No such thing ever was. 

The nature of the Verb "be " is fully discussed in Part IV., where we find 
the Definitions of Attributes and Attributive Elements, and their relation to 
language, according to the general principles of Analysis. 



94 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

OTHEE VEEBS SUBSTITUTED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXIX. 
God exists. 
He always has existed. 
Troy flourished. 

Before Borne began its career Egypt had existed. 
The human spirit will exist when time shall have ceased. 
Time shall endure no more. 

Eternity will continue after time shall have lapsed. 
I may live when this city shall have perished. 
You can stand true if you persist. 
It must have happened, for he said so. 

EX. CXXX. 
Ancient nations may have flourished here. 
They can not have existed elsewhere. 
Powerful kings must have lived in the past. 
All these things might happen. 
So great a mine could not exist. 
She would remain silent, though he insisted. 
It might have happened. 
We could have become rich, but would not. 
Great cities would have stood there. 

This should not have occurred. 

« 

EX. CXXXI. 
He said it should happen, and it did. 
All men do not continue honest. 
They resided in Paris. 
God said, " Let light come," and it came. 
It shall not continue so. 
She weeps because they live no more. 
All people should remain contented. 
We do not feel happy. 
We shall soon exist no more. 
No such thing ever transpired. 

Many other Verbs, as here illustrated, have the same signification as the 
Verb "be," and may therefore be substituted for it without varying the 
meaning of the Sentence. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 95 

SUPERFLUOUS PRONOUN "IT," WITH INFINITIVE. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXXII. 
It will require too much work to make it. 
It is impossible to tell how he did it. 
It would be better to stay at home. 
It is wrong to come late. 
It is improper to say, " He done it." 
It gave me pleasure to listen to her. 
It will aid your enterprise to do this. 
It is sometimes better to think without speaking. 
It is a good thing to water the plants. 
It would have been better to ask him first. 

EX. CXXXIII. 
It seldom fails to stand by the right. 
It never pays to do wrong. 
It is always advisable to try first. 
It will be difficult to frame so large a picture. 
It is easy to perform that triek. 
It is sometimes hard to do right. 
It is always sweet to know -we have triumphed. 
It would serve him right to lose his place. 
It is never best to take things for granted. 
It would kill mother to hear of this. 

EX. CXXXIV. 
It must be hard to part with dear friends. 
It may serve our purpose to ask one question. 
It can be of no use to attempt it again. 
It is very disagreeable to be obliged to take medicine. 
It almost broke his heart to leave his mother. 
It gave him great pleasure to assist me. 
It seems too bad to hear of such accidents. 
It will be pleasant to be alone for a short time. 
It must have pleased him to get such news. [time. 

It should'be arranged to have the ship sail in the day- 

The word "it" has a characteristic function in English, as a mere intro- 
ductory word, similar to the use of "there." Its grammatical construction 
is always that of a Pronoun, but its real signification is frequently so indefi- 
nite as to be lost. 



96 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SUPERFLUOUS PRONOUNS OMITTED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXXII. 
To make it will require too much work. 
To tell how he did it is impossible. 
To stay at home ivould be better. 
To come late is wrong. 
To say " He done it" i's improper. 
To listen to her 'gave me pleasure. 
To do this will aid your enterprise. 
To think without speaking is sometimes better. 
To water the plants is a good thing. 
To ask him first toould have been better. 

EX. CXXXIII. 
To stand by the right seldom fails. 
To do wrong never pays. 
To try first is always advisable. 
To frame so large a picture will be difficult. 
To perform that trick is easy. 
To do right is sometimes ha^rd. 
To know we have triumphed is always sweet. 
To lose his place ivould serve him right. 
To take things for granted is never best. 
To hear this ivould kill mother. 

EX. CXXXIV. 
To part with dear friends must be hard. 
To ask one question may serve our purpose. 
To attempt it again can be of no use. 
To be obliged to take medicine is very disagreeable. 
To leave his mother almost broke his heart. 
To assist me gave him great pleasure. 
To hear of such accidents seems too bad. 
To be alone for a short time will be pleasant. 
To get such news must have pleased him. [ranged. 

To have the ship sail in the daytime should be ar- 

Wliile these Sentences, as here reconstructed, are considered grammatically 
correct, they do not have the euphony and elegance of those on the preceding 
page introduced by the idiomatic word " it." But they illustrate its use. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 97 

INFINITIVE PHRASES IN THE OBJECTIVE. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXXV. 
He likes to rise early. 
They have always tried to make money. 
She loves to read every evening. 
You do not intend to walk all the way. 
I must endeavor to "write to my mother. 
We soon forget to write to our friends. 
I expect to hear from you occasionally. 
It soon ceases to give her pleasure. 
The heat/ai7s to evaporate the water. 
I must not neglect to pay the printer. 

EX. CXXXVI. 
He continued to make money very fast. 
You ought to know better. 
She refused to. allow me to accompany her. 
They intended to invite us. 
We require to use all our money. 
She consented to ride in the cars. 
The judge agreed to pronounce sentence. 
I decided to perform the journey. 
You must remember to lock the door. 
They will not try to -work this example. 

EX. CXXXVII. 
He wished to leave the place. 
I do not desire to return to America. 
We shall soon want to eat our dinner. 
The dentist tried to extract my tooth. 
That man never tries to slight his work. 
She once desired to correspond with him. 
You never thought to introduce him. 
They refused to speak to me. 
The children expected to see the sport. 
We must not attempt to injure him. 

In sec. 26, p. 118, will be found the Definition of the Infinitive Mood; and 
the Sentences on this page are intended to illustrate its use as a substitute 
for the Noun in the Objective Case after a Transitive Verb. 
5 



98 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SAME PHRASES IN THE NOMINATIVE. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXXV. 
To rise early is conducive to health. 
To make money is not always easy. 
To read every evening* ivould be monotonous. 
To walk all the way will fatigue you. 
To write to my mother is my first duty. 
To "write to your friends will please them. 
To hear from you occasionally will be agreeable. 
To give her pleasure is a difficult task. 
To evaporate water requires heat. 
To pay the printer should be your greatest care. 

EX. CXXXVI. 
To make money fast is very difficult. 
To know better involves more experience. 
To allow me to accompany her was out of the questioD . 
To invite us ivould confer a favor. 
To use all our money is impossible. 
To ride in the street cars causes much delay. 
To pronounce sentence may cause trouble. 
To perform the journey requires money. 
To lock the door ivill prevent their admission. 
To work this example is no easy matter. 

EX. CXXXVII. 
To leave the place may disappoint them. 
To return to America is his greatest desire. 
To eat our dinner will refresh us. 

To extract my tooth- will be a very difficult operation. 
To slight his work might lead to his discharge. 
To correspond with him implies fine scholarship. 
To introduce him may displease the company. 
To speak to me needs no introduction. 
To see the sport made them laugh. 
To injure him would be cruel. 

The Infinitive Verb on this page takes the place of the Noun in the Nomi- 
native Case. The Verb used in each sentence is the same one that is found 
in the corresponding line on the preceding page. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 99 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE USED AS A NOUN. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXXXVIII. 
Investigating scientific matters delights him. 
Speculating recklessly ruins many men. 
Exercising freely benefits the muscles. 
Buying is easier than selling. 
Selling goods gives people employment. 
Stealing deserves severe punishment. 
Walking is sometimes very wearisome. 
Caring for the sick occupies her attention. 
Believing can not save a drowning man. 
Calling occasionally will encourage her. 

EX. CXXXIX. 
Borrowing money is a very simple thing. 
Paying is often much more difficult. 
Transacting business makes some people rich. 
Returning a borrowed umbrella creates surprise. 
Appropriating other people's money caused this. 
Seeing meat refreshes a hungry man. 
Eating a good supply strengthens him more. 
Sighing pensively will not provide beefsteak. 
Regretting a bad act does not mend it. 
Expecting great things gave him pleasure. 

EX. CXL. 
Realizing is often less agreeable than expecting. 
Failing in business is now quite common. 
Arranging his affairs gave him trouble. 
Collecting money is very difficult. 
Sailing across the ocean is often disagreeable. 
Making shot requires a high tower. 
Receiving visitors will demand attention. 
Entertaining them must be provided for. 
Perpetrating crimes distinguished him. 
Providing for the future shows forethought. 

In sec. 29, p. 119, will be found the Definition of Participles. Besides 
performing the office of a Noun, the Present Participle is also used as an Ad- 
jective. This may now be shown by similar examples. 



100 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

NOUNS USED INSTEAD OE PAETICIPLES. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXXXVIII. 
Scientific investigation delights him. 
Reckless speculation 7*uins many men. 
Free exercise benefits the muscles. 
A purchase is easier than a sale. 
The sale of goods gives people employment. 
Theft deserves severe punishment. 
A "walk is sometimes very wearisome. 
The care of the sick occupies her attention. 
Faith can not save a drowning man. 
An occasional call will encourage her. 

EX. CXXXIX. 
A loan is a very simple thing. 
Payment is often much more difficult. 
The transaction of business makes some people rich. 
The return of a borrowed umbrella creates surprise. 
The appropriation of other people's money caused this. 
The sight of meat refreshes a hungry man. 
A good meal strengthens him more. 
A pensive sigh will not provide beefsteak. 
Regret does not mend a bad act. 
Great expectations gave him pleasure. 

EX. CXL. 
Realization is often less agreeable than expectation. 
Business failures are now quite common. 
The arrangement of his affairs gave him trouble. 
The collection of money is very difficult. 
An ocean voyage is often disagreeable. 
The manufacture of shot requires a high tower. 
The reception of visitors will demand attention. 
Their entertainment must he provided for. 
The perpetration of crime distinguished him. 
Provision for the future shows forethought. 

The Noun is here substituted for the Present Participle without changing 
the signification in any way. The style of expression in composition may 
thus be varied to avoid monotony. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 101 

VERBS TO BE CHANGED TO PAST PARTICIPLES. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXLI. 
Do not break the cup. 
Write a copy of the document. 
They print vast numbers of books. 
When did he complete his work ? 
Be careful not to lose your character. 
I knew he would ruin his reputation. 
He did not intend to injure me. 
I was careful not to expect any favor. 
Examine the papers as rapidly as possible. 
Never spill milk unless it is frozen. 

EX. CXLII. 
I told him he would shatter his constitution. 
Intellectual pursuits will satisfy your mind. 
He feared the storm would •wreck the ship. 
Open all the windows in the room. 
I esteem my friend very highly. 
Oh, how he did love his children ! 
Do not tear the paper. 
How did you soil your book? 
He tried hard to accumulate a fortune. 
We shall manufacture more goods. 

EX. CXLIll. 

Why do you try to ornament your writing? 

The recollection disturbs his conscience. 

So many blessings should content him. 

Why did they plunder the travelers ? 

They will recover the lost treasure. 

We shall preserve no fruit this year. 

Did they reserve any of the capital ? 

Try your friends before you depend on them. 

Tell him to shoe all the horses. 

Be sure not to forget the name. 

These Exercises may he followed hy copious examples of a similar charac- 
ter, taking care to select only those Verbs whose Past Participles may he ap- 
propriately used as Adjectives. 



102 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

PAST PAETICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXLL 
A broken cup can hold no water. 
Written documents furnish strong evidence. 
Printed books have superseded manuscripts. 
His completed work deserves credit. 
Lost character is not easily restored. 
A ruined reputation is a great misfortune. 
An intended injury is not easily forgotten. 
Expected favors lose their charm. 
The examined papers may be laid aside. 
Spilt milk can not be recovered. 

EX. CXLII. 
A shattered constitution causes misery. 
A satisfied mind enjoys pleasure. 
The 'wrecked ship was abandoned. 
The opened windows were again closed. 
My esteemed friend will probably die. 
His loved ones were all lost at sea. 
Torn paper is useless. 
Your soiled book looks bad. 
An accumulated fortune was his reward. 
Manufactured goods sell readily here. 

EX. CXLIII. 
Ornamented writing is not used in business. 
A disturbed conscience makes him unhappy. 
A contented mind will make a man happy. 
The plundered travelers recovered their money. 
Recovered treasure is clear profit. 
Preserved fruits are quite common. 
The reserved capital has been used. 
Tried friends are most reliable. 
Shod horses can travel best. 
A forgotten name may be forever lost. 

The Past Participles on this page are all used as Adjectives derived from 
the corresponding Verbs on the preceding page; and the Nouns so modified 
are employed in the Nominative Case. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 103 

THE POSSESSIVE SINGULAR. 

See pages 104 and 105. 
EX. CXLIV. 
The secretary's report gives the number. 
They sold the lady's dress very cheap. 
A hen's egg is not very large. 
A fisherman's boat was lost. 
Moses' rod performed wonders. 
His ship has arrived. 
We have arrived at our journey's end. 
The ship's crew all deserted. 
Forgive our sins for Jesus' sake. 
A man's manners often make his fortune. 

EX. CXLV. 
The officer's salary was too small. 
He did it for conscience's sake. 
You can buy a man's or boy's clothing. 
I saw the fish's eyes. 

This ink's color possesses great brilliancy. 
We did not get the horse's shoes. 
He went a day's journey. 
Mr. Jones' family occupied a front seat. 
The king's promise can not be relied on. 
Did you ever incur a woman's displeasure ? 

EX. CXLVI. 

A rose's leaf has a nice perfume. 

They are increasing the city's debt. 

New York's population is the largest. 

Are your friend's children going ? 

The room's dimensions are not sufficient. 

You can not read by the star's light. 

The teacher's duties are very arduous. 

They have been raising the house's roof. 

Brutus took Caesar's life. 

A bird's teeth are very scarce. 

No more frequent mistakes are made than in the improper construction, 
spelling, and use of the Possessive Case. As these Sentences are pronounced 
in dictation, the Plural should be written. See sec. 61, p. 125. 



104 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

THE POSSESSIVE PLURAL. 

See pages 103 and 105. 
EX. CXLIV. 
The secretaries' reports give the number. 
They sold ladies' dresses very cheap. 
Hens' eggs are not very large. 
The fishermen's boats were large. 
No plural. 

Their ships have arrived; or, their ship has arrived. 
They have arrived at their journeys' ends. 
The ships' crews all deserted. 
No plural. 
Men's manners often make their fortunes. 

EX. CXLV. 
The officers' salaries were too small. 
No plural. 

You can buy men's and boys' clothing. 
I saw the fishes' eyes. 
These inks' colors possess great brilliancy, 
We did riot get the horses' shoes. 
He went several days' journey. 
The Joneses' families occupied front seats. 
Kings' promises can not be relied on. 
Did you ever incur the women's displeasure ? 

EX. CXLVI. 
Roses' leaves have a nice perfume. (Or, rose-leaves.) 
They are increasing the cities' debts. 
No plural. 

Are your friends' children going ? 
The rooms' dimensions are not sufficient. 
You can not read by the stars' light. 
The teachers' duties are veiy arduous. 
They have been raising the houses' roofs. 
No plural. 
Birds' teeth are very scarce. 

While the use of the Possessive Plural as exemplified on this page is quite 
correct, it is not, however, the most desirable form to be used, as will appear 
by comparing these Sentences with those on the following page. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 105 

SUBSTITUTE FOR POSSESSIVE PLURAL. 

See pages 103 and 104. 
EX. CXLIV. 
The reports of the secretaries give the number. 
They sold dresses for ladies very cheap. 
The eggs of hens are not very large. 
The boats of the fishermen were lost. 
No plural. 

Pronouns have no other form, with a few exceptions. 
They have arrived at th£ ends of their journeys. 
The crews of the ships all deserted. 
No plural. 
The manners of men sometimes make their fortunes. 

EX. CXLV. 
The salaries of the officers were too small. 
No plural. 

You can buy clothing for men and boys. 
I saw the eyes of the fishes. 
The colors of these inks possess great brilliancy. 
We did not get the shoes for the horses. 
He went a journey of several days. 
The families of the Joneses occupied front seats. 
The promises of kings cannot be relied on. 
Did you ever incur the displeasure of women ? 

EX. CXLVI. 
The leaves of roses have a nice perfume. 
They are increasing the debts of the cities. 
No plural. 

Are the children of your friends going ? 
The dimensions of the rooms are not sufficient. 
You can not read by the light of the stars. 
The duties of the teachers are very arduous. 
They have been raising the roofs of the houses. 
No plural. 
The teeth of birds are very scarce. 

It is often desirable to avoid the awkward and sometimes ambiguous na- 
ture of those expressions in which the Possessive Plural appears. This may 
be done by the use of the Preposition "of," as here shown. See sec. 53, p. 123. 



106 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

POSSESSIVE SHOWING POSSESSION. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CXLVII. 
I borrowed my book from the library. 
Come into our garden and see the flowers. 
What makes her hair grow so luxuriantly ? 
My pencil is not sharp enough. 
Its color is red by reflection. 
Your boots are too long for you. 
When will you mail your letters ? 
His pen has a good point. 
Their houses have been painted. 
She sold her jewelry yesterday. 

EX. CXLVIII. 
How do you like our furniture ? 
Why does its cover not fit ? 
He spends his money very foolishly. 
" Put off thy shoes from off thy feet." 
The moon transmits its light to us. 
Where did you lose your hat ? 
That man can not manage his horse. 
We have brought our umbrellas. 
She borrowed her gloves from me. 
Bring your chair to the table. 

EX. CXLIX. 
Is my overcoat in that room ? 
They are destroying their books. 
His gun is in the room on the table. 
We do not like our house. 
Your boat does not sail well. 
Her skates will not stay on her feet. 
Let me spin my top on the floor. 
He has lost all his marbles. 
Your kite has not half enough tail. 
My desk is too low. 

These Sentences should be dictated; but instead of writing them, those on 
the following page, or any others that imply ownership as well as possession, 
hould be written. Always encourage original thought. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 107 

POSSESSIVE SHOWING OWNERSHIP. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CXLYII. 
This is my own book and not a borrowed one. 
Is it your own garden, or do' you rent it? 
It is not her own hair. 
I left my own sharp pencil at home. 
That is not its own color. 
Are they your own boots ? 
Are they your own letters ? 
This is not his own pen, but mine. 
I believe they are their own houses. 
It was not her own jewelry. 

EX. CXLVIII. 
It is not our own furniture. 
Its own cover is lost. 
Do you believe it is his own money ? 
Are these thine own shoes ? Yea, verily. 
But it is not its own light. 
That is not your own hat. 
He is sorry now that he sold his own horse. 
These are our own umbrellas. 
Her own gloves are lost. 
Is that your own chair, Charlie ? 

EX. CXLIX. 
I left my own overcoat at home. 
Would they destroy their own books in that manner ? 
What did he do with his own gim ? 
We shall soon move into our own house. 
Why do you not use your own boat ? 
They are not her own skates. 
I would rather spin my own top. 
They were not his own marbles either. 
Where is your own kite ? 
I will write it at my own desk. 

The addition of the word "owx " in the Possessive Case unequivocally de- 
notes ownership. The Sentences on the preceding page imply possession, but 
are ambiguous with regard to ownership. See p. 123, sec. 54, and p. 126. 



108 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS— SIMPLE OBJECTIVE. 

To be taken with the following page. 
EX. CL. 
He did not kill the other man, but hurt him. 
I bought a new pair of shoes for me, 
You will hurt you if you climb that tree. 
She did not allude to me, but her. 
It regulates it by means of a wheel. 
We amused us by watching the game. 
Why dost thou hide thee from my sight ? 
They injured them more than us. 
It diffuses it all through the water. 
You degrade you by keeping his company. 

EX. CLI. 
I saw me in the looking-glass. 
He injured him by being too severe. 
She has deprived her of every pleasure. 
" Get thee behind me, Satan ! " 
"Comfort ye, O my people 1" 
They will make them mad. 
Hurry thee off. to a place of safety. 
He will distinguish him among them. 
I have provided me with ammunition. 
She must keep her out of sight. 

EX. CLII. 

We shall never lend us to such a scheme. 

Thej r never allowed them to be convinced. 

You must deny you, and follow me. 

" Quit you like men, and fight." 

He always kept him in the dark. 

I hurried me away from the scene. 

I wish that they could see them now. 

We consider us competent. 

She has invited her to be present. 

It will communicate it to the wires. 

A very common error is here exposed. The Pronouns of the Third Person are 
very ambiguous when used instead of Reflexive Pronouns in the Objective Case. 
They may be construed to refer to any other person as well as to the actor. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 109 

EEFLEXIVE PBONOUNS SUBSTITUTED. 

To be taken with the preceding page. 
EX. CL. 
He did not kill the other man, but hurt himself. 
I bought a new pair of shoes for myself. 
You will hurt yourself if you climb that tree. 
She did not allude to me, but herself. 
It regulates itself by means of a wheel. 
We amused ourselves by watching, the game. 
Why dost thou hide thyself from my sight ? 
They injured themselves more than us. 
It diffuses itself all through the water. 
You degrade yourself by keeping his company. 

EX. CLI. 
I saw myself in the looking-glass. 
He injured himself by being too severe. 
She has deprived herself of every pleasure. 
Get thyself behind me, Satan ! 
Comfort yourselves, O my people ! 
They will make themselves mad. 
Hurry thyself off to a place of safety. 
He will distinguish himself among them. 
I have provided myself with ammunition. 
She must keep herself out of sight. 

EX. CLII. 
We shall never lend ourselves to such a scheme. 
They never allowed themselves to be convinced. 
You must deny yourselves and follow me. 
Quit yourselves like men and fight. 
He always kept himself in the dark. 
I hurried myself away from the scene. 
I wish that they could see themselves now. 
We consider ourselves competent. 
She has invited herself to be present. 
It will communicate itself to the wires. 

When the Reflexive Pronoun is used in the Objective Case all ambiguity 
is prevented, and the act can only refer to the person who performed it. See 
sec. 65, p. 126. 



PART II. 



CLASSIFICATION 



OB, 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Containing Definitions and Explanations of all the Terms commonly used 
in Grammar; with Formulas for Parsing each of the Parts of Speech, and 
criticisms upon many words that have heretofore been ignored or imperfectly 
explained. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. Ill 

THE VERB.— DEFINITIONS. 

1. A Verb is a word or combination of words used to assert 
something; as, " He is not here;" "I was listening to the 
music;" " It would have been prepared." 

The assertion may be positive or negative, and may indicate 
action, motion, condition, transition, reception of an act, or 
simple existence. In the last example, prepared is the Prin- 
cipal Verb, and been, would, and have are known as Aux- 
iliary Verbs. The latter are so called because they assist or 
help to make some distinction or limitation. 

2. The Principal Parts of a Verb are the Present and Past 
Tenses of the Indicative Mood, and the Past Participle; as, 
expect, expected, expected; go, "went, gone. 

Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts are called De- 
fective Verbs; as, ought. 

3. A Regular Verb is one that takes the termination ed in 
the changes of the Principal Parts. Expect is a Regular 
Verb. 

4. An Irregular Verb is one that does not take the ending ed 
in the changes of the Principal Parts. Go is an Irregular Verb. 

Those Verbs that have both a Regular and an Irregular form 
are called Redundant; as, hang, hanged, hanged; hang, 
hung, hung. 

5. A Transitive Verb is one that is capable of having an 
Object when used in the Active Voice; as, "He lifted the 
weight;" " She is admired;" " The table has been made." 

Lifted has an Object, weight; " She is admired," when trans- 
posed, becomes " {Everybody) admires her" in which the Ob- 
ject is her; and " The table has been made " becomes " (The 
carpenter) has made the table," in which table is the Object; and 
since each is capable of being reconstructed so as to have an 
Object, they are, therefore, Transitive Verbs. 

6. An Intransitive Verb is one that can not have an Ob- 
ject; as, " My head aches;" " The boy still cries." 

By referring to the explanations in Part IV., relating to Tran- 
sitive and Intransitive Verbs, it will be seen that the Transitive 
Verb with its Object expresses no more than the Intransitive 
Verb alone. 



112 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE VEKB.— VOICE AND FORM. 

7. The Active Voice is the construction of the Verb that is 
used when the Sentence is constructed in the Active Form (see 
sec. 10, next page); it consists of the Principal Verb with or 
without any Auxiliary except the Verb be, which is only used 
in the Passive and Progressive Forms. 

Grammarians often use the word Active to denote any Verb 
that implies action alone. In the sense in which we have used 
it, however, it makes no difference whether it implies action or 
not. cc The room contains air" has the Transitive Verb con- 
tains, which is in the Active Voice, though no action of any 
kind is indicated. 

8. The Passive Voice is that construction of the Verb which 
is used when the Sentence is constructed in the Passive Form 
(see sec. 11, next page), and consists of the Past Participle of 
the Principal Verb, preceded by that Mood and Tense of the 
Verb be which corresponds to the same Mood and Tense of the 
given Verb in the Active Form. 

The great facility with which an assertion can be made with- 
out mentioning the actor or agent, by using the Passive 
Form, is shown in the Correspondence at the conclusion of 
Part V. 

9. The Passive Form, of a Verb is that which some Intran- 
sitive Verbs are made to assume by using in connection with 
them some appropriate Inseparable Preposition (see sec. Ill, 
page 135). "He was looked upon as a god," contains the 
Intransitive Verb look in the Passive Form, and the Insepara- 
ble Preposition upon. 

Note I. Every Verb in the Passive Voice must be Transitive; 
but one in the Passive Form would not necessarily be Transitive. 

Note II. All Verbs in the Passive Voice are also, of course, 
in the Passive Form. 

Note III. None but Transitive Verbs can be changed from 
the Active to the Passive Voice. 

Note IV. Some Transitive Verbs are also used as Intransitive; 
as, " The fire burns the ivood," or, " The wood burns readily;'' 
"The horse moves the load," or, " The load moves;" " The 
boy has written a ivord," or, " The boy -writes too fast." 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 113 

THE VERB.— FOEMS OF SENTENCES. 

10. The Active Form of a Sentence is that in which the 
person or thing performing the act is placed before the Transi- 
tive Verb in the Active Voice, and the person or thing acted 
upon after it; as, " The boys have collected all the books." 

This is also known as the Common Form of a Sentence, 
and the latter title is preferred Avhen the Verb is Intransitive. 

11. The Passive Form of a Sentence is that in which the 
author of an act and the object upon which the act terminates 
are transposed, so that the thing acted upon, which is the pas- 
sive recipient of the act, occupies the position before the Tran- 
sitive Verb in the Passive Voice, and the person or thing per- 
forming the act, preceded by some suitable Preposition, is 
placed after it; as, "All the books have been collected by the 
boys." 

The numerous examples of transposition from the Active to 
the Passive Form found in Part I. will make the study of these 
Definitions very attractive and interesting. Only those Defini- 
tions that are necessary to be known for the purpose of trans- 
posing the Sentences should be assigned for study. The chief 
obstacle to progress in the science of Grammar has ever been a 
multiplicity of Definitions, with no means of making any prac- 
tical application of them in forming Sentences. 

12. Sentences with Intransitive Verbs, not accompa- 
nied by Inseparable Prepositions, can not be transposed or re- 
constructed in the Passive Form. They are written in the 
Common Form when not required in the Progressive or Em- 
phatic. 

Note V. When a Sentence is changed from the Active to the 
Passive Form, the actor or agent, instrument or cause may be 
entirely elided or omitted. This is the chief advantage gained 
by using the latter form, and enables us to avoid the egotistical 
style of the former; thus, "/have rilled your order " becomes 
" Your order has been filled;" and "I answered the question 
immediately" becomes "The question was immediately an- 
swered." 

Note VI. All modifiers of the Subject and Object are trans- 
posed with them. (See Part IV.) 



114 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE VEKB.— FOBMS OF SENTENCES. 

13. The Progressive Form of a Verb is that which repre- 
sents an act as a continuous event, and changes the Sentence 
into the Progressive Form. It consists of the Present Par- 
ticiple of the Principal Yerb, preceded by that Mood and Tense 
of the Yerb be which corresponds to the same Mood and Tense 
of the Common Form; thus, " I stand on the table frequently" 
does not intimate that I am necessarily in that position at the 
time it is said; but " I am standing on the table" signifies a 
continuous act taking place at the time the words are uttered; 
and as it represents the act as happening or in a state of prog- 
ress at that time, it derives the name of Progressive Form. 

The Progressive Form of a Sentence is that in which the 
Yerb used is in the Progressive Form. The Exercises com- 
mencing on page 46 illustrate the use of this Form, which is so 
universal in ordinary conversation. Sometimes it is far more 
expressive than the Common Form. Each pupil should be re- 
quired to explain the reason for its preference, and to state the 
objection to its use in any given Sentence. 

14. The Emphatic Form of a Yerb does not differ from the 
Common Form except in the Present and Past Indicative, 
when do or does and did are respectively employed to receive 
the emphasis, which in the other Tenses (except Present Im- 
perative, where do is supplied) is placed on the Auxiliary. 
This Form is used to re-assert what has been doubted, contra- 
dicted, or denied upon its first assertion; thus, "I went to 
school " is the Common Form; "I did go to school " is the 
Emphatic. 

The Emphatic Form of a Sentence is that in which the 
Yerb used is in the Emphatic Form. 

Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, and Imperative Sen- 
tences may all be changed from one into another of these four 
forms. (See Part IV., Definitions 4 to 7.) 

Note VII. The Past and Future Tenses can only be used in 
the Progressive to indicate an act or stale actually in progress 
and continuing at a given period, which must be specified in the 
Sentence or in a previous or subsequent one. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 115 

KULES.— PASSIVE, PROGRESSIVE, AND EMPHATIC. 

15. Rule for Passive. — To change a Sentence from the Ac- 
tive to the Passive Form: First, use the Object of the Active 
Verb, with its modifiers, for the Subject of the Passive 
Verb; second, write the corresponding Mood and Tense of 
the Verb "be," followed by the Past Participle of the 
given Verb, with its modifiers; third, place the Subject of 
the Active Verb, with its modifiers, after the Passive 
Verb, always preceding it with a suitable Preposition. 

16. Rule for Progressive. — To change a Sentence from the 
Active to the Progressive Form : First, use the corresponding 
Mood and Tense of the Verb "be," followed by the Pres- 
ent Participle of the given Verb; second, keep the remain- 
ing parts of the Sentence unchanged. 

17. Rule for Emphatic. — To change a Sentence into the Em- 
phatic Form: Emphasize the leading Auxiliary of the 
Verb, and if the Principal Verb have no Auxiliary, sup- 
ply " do " or " did " for emphatic words. 

The proper method of becoming familiar with these Rules is 
to develop them while making the given changes in Sentences 
that have been placed upon slips of paper that can be cut into 
sections, so as to facilitate the transposition. 

While studying these Definitions, the class should be engaged 
upon the Exercises in Part I. Indeed, the principal use of the 
Definitions will be for reference while the foregoing Exercises 
are being written. Almost all ordinary pupils have been drilled 
upon the abstract Definitions of Text-books on Grammar until 
they have been alienated from the study; and a pupil of aver- 
age intelligence has already acquired most of the Definitions, 
and principally lacks the application of the various Rules. 

Note VIII. The Verb be, on account of its being the instru- 
ment with which we change the form of a Sentence, can not 
itself be changed into Passive or Progressive Form. 

Note IX. Neither does the Verb be require the addition of do 
or did in the Emphatic Form. Its Emphatic Form consists of 
simple repetition. 



116 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE VEBB.— TIME AND TENSE. 

18. Time, in Grammar, signifies the duration of an act or 
state, the time of its occurrence or existence, or the fact, prob- 
ability, or possibility of its happening; as, "I was sick two 
days;" "He broke my slate yesterday;" " She will return 
to-morrow;" "He may sell all the fruit next week." 

19. Apart from Grammar, as a matter of fact, there are only 
two divisions of Time— the Past and the Future. These are 
separated by what is called the Present, which, however, is 
but a moment. It is to Time what a Point, in Geometry, is to 
two finite straight lines that are contiguous at the extremities 
and in the same direction. The Point has no dimensions, and 
the Present has in reality no duration. "When the latter is 
viewed, however, as a portion of Time of limited duration (as a 
moment, a second, a minute, an hour, a day, a week, a year, or 
a century, separating the fathomless Past from the boundless 
Future), we create a third division of Time, of artificial char- 
acter, known as the Present. 

Note X. A train of cars in motion upon a track which can be 
represented on the blackboard, or by a picture suspended be- 
fore the class, is a good illustration of Time. That portion of 
the track upon which the train is moving corresponds exactly 
to the Present, which is ever changing its place. That over 
which the train has already moved represents the Past, and 
that which lies before it, the Future. The train may consist 
of twenty cars, ten, five, or one, or only the locomotive. Or 
we may substitute simply a grain of sand blown along the 
track. This explains the limitation of the Present. 

Now, yesterday, and to-morrow are convenient words to 
use in illustrating the three Simple Tenses; thus, the teacher 
may pronounce the word " Now," and after a slight pause the 
class may make the statement, "The train moves;" "Yes- 
terday" — " the train moved;" " To-morrow" — " the train 
will move;" "Now" — "it rains;" " Yesterday "—" it 
rained:" " To-morrow" — " it will rain." . 

Note XI. Properly there is no difference between an act and 
a state; for when an act is performed the doer is in a state of 
action, no matter how short its duration. Hence the term 
state includes what is represented by the word act. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 117 

THE VERB.— TIME AND TENSE. 

20. The two natural divisions of Time (Past and Future) 
and the artificial division (Present) are called the three Simple 
Tenses. They are the Present Tense, denoting present time; 
the Past Tense, denoting time that has passed away; and the 
Future Tense, denoting the time to come; as, "He reads 
very well." " He read aloud yesterday;" " He -will read again 
to-morrow, and I shall listen to him." 

Shall, in the first person, has the same signification as will 
in the second or third, and denotes simple futurity; while 
will, in the first person, has the effect of shall in the second 
and third, denoting determination as well as futurity. 

21. The three Perfect Tenses denote the end or completion 
of an act, or the time at which it is brought to perfection, either 
in the past, present, or future. They are distinguished by the 
addition of some part of the Verb have, which, for this reason, 
is called the " sign" of the Perfect Tenses. They are the 
Present Perfect Tense, denoting an act just now finished, or 
completed some time previous to the present, from which it is 
viewed; the Past Perfect Tense, denoting an act that was 
perfect or complete at a certain time specified in the past; and 
the Future Perfect Tense, denoting an act that will be ended 
at a given time in the future; as, " They have "written the 
lesson three times;" "He had paid the money before I met 
him;" "I shall have completed my work at noon." 

Each Simple Tense should be illustrated with its own Per- 
fect Tense; and a considerable number of examples should be 
given in one before proceeding to another, and the particular 
significance of the Simple and the Perfect Tense minutely de- 
scribed; thus (writing on the blackboard): 

Present — " He writes slowly" (act not completed); 

Pres. Perf. — He has written it (act complete). 

Present — The heat evaporates the water (act not finished); 

Pres. Perf. — The heat has evaporated the water (process 
ended). 

22. A Mood (or Mode) is a classification of Tenses according 
to their use in designating facts, possibilities, or abstract 
acts, without reference to the actors; as, " It has happened;" 
"You may die;" "Walking;" "To fight." A Verb in any 
form except a Participle or an Infinitive, is said to be Finite. 



118 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE YEEB.— MOODS AND TENSES. 

23. The Indicative Mood is that class of variations of the 
Verb which consists of facts or certainties, either in the 
statement of past and present events, or promises, assurances, 
and predictions of the future. 

The Indicative Mood is the only one that contains all of the 
six Tenses, as shown on pages 188 and 189. 

24. The Potential Mood is that class of variations of the Verb 
which denotes possibility, probability, necessity, or duty. 

As the future is altogether uncertain and indeterminate, the 
Present Tense of this Mood includes the future, and conse- 
quently there is no Future Tense, as in the Indicative; thus, 
" The horse can draw heavy loads/' means now or at any future 
time. 

25. The Subjunctive Mood is a modification of the Indica- 
tive, by the addition of if to each Tense, and a change of 
spelling in the Present and Past Tenses. 

As if, however, may be combined with the Tenses of the Po- 
tential Mood, the Subjunctive has almost become obsolete. It 
is now limited almost entirely to the Irregular Verb be, and its 
distinguishing characteristic is the similarity of spelling in all 
the Persons in each Tense; thus, " If I be, if thou be, if he be; 
if we be, if you be, if they be." Other expressions can be sub- 
stituted for this form, so as to avoid the use of if; as, " Should 
I be/' etc. 

26. The Infinitive Mood is an impersonal form of the Verb, 
used to designate an act as if it were a Noun; thus, " To de- 
stroy a house is much easier than to construct it " becomes 
' ' The destruction of a house is much easier than its construc- 
tion." The actor is here entirely ignored. 

Note XII. The form of the Indicative Mood is retained after 
if when certainty is intended, and the old form of Subjunc- 
tive, if contingency or doubt is implied; thus, " If he be sick 
we need not expect him," implies contingency; but " If he is 
sick, as you have just asserted, I must visit him," implies cer- 
tainty; "If it rain cats and dogs, do not stop to pick up the 
pretty ones," shows contingency; but " If it rains, the hay is 
spoiled," indicates certainty. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 119 

THE VEEB.— MOODS AND TENSES. 

27. The sign of the Infinitive, " to," invariably accompa- 
nies it, either expressed or understood, and enables us to recog- 
nize any Verb in this form at once; thus, " I love to labor;" 
" To have remained was impossible;" " We saw it (to) 
move;" " They expected it to move." 

To, the Infinitive sign, is closely allied with the Preposition 
to. This will appear from a comparison of the two Sentences: 
" He was caused to weep," and " He was moved to tears." 
But these two words should not be confounded together. 

28. The Imperative Mood is that form of the Verb used to 
express commands, requests, entreaties, exhortations, and 
prayers; or to grant permission to do anything; as, "Ad- 
vance upon the enemy!" "Pass me a cup;" "Save me from 
drowning!" " Think only that which is pure, speak only that 
which is true, and do only that which is right;" " Give us this day 
our daily bread ;" " Go out into the garden and pick flowers." 

In the English language the Imperative Mood has only one 
Tense, and is confined to the Second Person alone. All the 
others are wanting. 

29. Participles are expressions constructed from the Verb, 
by annexing the terminations ing and ed in Regular Verbs, or 
by an entire change of construction in those that are Irregular 
(see page 154), in order to transform them into Adjectives 
and Nouns, or substitutes therefor; as, converting, con- 
verted, going, gone. The Present Participle may be used 
as a Noun, as, " The playing was good." Or, it may take the 
office of an -Adjective; as, "Two playing dogs appeared be- 
fore us." But the Past Participle can only assume the func- 
tion of an Adjective ; as, "An interrupted conversation is 
unpleasant." 

30. A Verb is subject to a change of spelling, according to 
the Number and Person of its Nominative. 

Note XIII. To, the Infinitive sign, may properly be elided 
or omitted, in certain cases, from Infinitive Verbs, when they 
appear in Objective clauses following the Verbs bid, dare, 
need, make, see, hear, feel, let, perceive, behold, observe, 
help, have, watch, and know. (See pages' 89 and 90.) 



120 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

NOUNS AND PKONOUNS. 

31. A Noun is a Name; as, " George called Harry." 

32. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun; as, 

" He called him twice. 55 

33. A Noun must always be mentioned at least once before 
it can properly be represented by a Pronoun; thus, " The boy 
cut the boy's foot;" " He cut the boy's foot;" " The boy cut 
his foot." 

The objection to the first is repetition of the Noun. The 
second implies two individuals. The third is correct. 

34. Persons, and many objects, as cities, rivers, etc., have two 
distinct names, which may be called general, or common, and 
specific, to be used according to the meaning and construction 
of a Sentence; thus, it would be improper to say, " Send me a 
Fred," for Fred is a name only used to specify some particular 
boy; but " Send me a boy," would be quite correct, as boy is 
the general or common name. 

Proper Nouns are specific names. 
Common Nouns are general names. 

35. Abstract Nouns are properly only names given to 
qualities or properties; as, greatness, excellence. 

36. Collective Nouns are those which signify collections, 
or groups; as, army, jury, multitude, flock. They are also 
called Nouns of Multitude. 

The improper use of Verbs used with Collective Nouns is a 
prolific source of error. By referring to the Rules of Syntax, 
at the end of Part IV., the proper manner of using these will 
be found. 

The same Noun is often capable of being used to express 
both unity and plurality of idea. In the Sentence, "The 
crowd gradually increased until its proportions became so 
great that a disturbance was feared," the idea is that of unity, 
for their could not be substituted for its without completely 
changing the import and meaning of the statement; but the 
Sentence, " The vast crowd then directed their attention to 
the speaker, and earnestly fixed their eyes upon him," evidently 
conveys plurality of idea, for it would be manifestly improper 
to use its for their. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 121 

NOUNS AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

37. There are four general characteristics or distinguishing 
features of Nouns and Pronouns, known as Gender, Person, 
Number, and Case. 

38. Gender is the distinction of sex. Although there are 
but two sexes — male and female — it is necessary to have 
four Genders to make a complete classification. They are the 
Masculine, denoting the male sex; the Feminine, represent- 
ing the female; the Common, for designating words that do 
not indicate whether male or female is meant; and the Neuter, 
for words that stand for objects having no sex. Each of these, 
respectively, is represented by the words, brother, sister, 
cousin, and hand, which are Nouns, and he, she, I, and it, 
which are Pronouns. 

39. Person is the distinction between the speaker, the 
hearer, and subject of conversation, which are respectively 
designated the First, Second, and Third Persons ; as, I, 
you, he. 

40. Number is the distinction between unity or plurality, 
or between one and more than one. There are, consequently, 
two Numbers; the Singular, denoting a quantity of magni- 
tude, ©r a single individual, or one; and the Plural, represent- 
ing a quantity of multitude, or more than one; as, she, they; 
mouse, mice; house, houses. 

41. Case is the distinction of rela'ion. A Noun or Pronoun 
may be related to another or to a Verb or Preposition. There are 
four Cases, which are all explained on the three following pages. 

42. Those Pronouns which are used chiefly to designate the 
distinction of Person are called Personal Pronouns. They 
are I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they. 

43. I and we are First Person, alluding to the speaker; thou 
and you are Second Person, representing the person addressed; 
and he, she, it, and they are Third Person, denoting the per- 
son or thing that is the subject of conversation. It and they 
are also used as Idioms. 

He is used when the statement applies to either sex; as, "Who- 
soever giveth you a cup of water in my name shall not lose his 
reward." His is the Possessive Case of he. 



122 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

CASES OF NOUNS AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

44. Case, in the Latin and other languages, is distinguished 
by varying the termination of words; and as Adjectives are 
classified in this way as well as Nouns and Pronouns, and as 
Verbs are subject to a similar system of classification, such are 
designated Classical Languages. The English language, 
however, is almost destitute of any arrangement of this kind; 
but the Cases of Personal Pronouns are, to a certain extent, 
capable of being recognized by their orthography; as, he, for 
example, is invariably in the Nominative Case, his in the Pos- 
sessive or Genitive, and him in the Objective or Accusative. 

45. The Nominative Case is the relation that a Noun, Pro- 
noun, or. equivalent expression bears to any Finite Verb which 
it precedes in construction; as, " William writes;" "We 
waited;" " To die is gain." 

46. The Objective Case (Accusative) is the relation that a 
Noun, Pronoun, or equivalent expression bears to a Transitive 
Verb or Preposition which it follows or succeeds in construction; 
as, "Call that boy;" "Having seen him;" " With respect." 

47. Personal Pronouns, with few exceptions, change their 
form when the Nominative and Objective Cases are transposed; 
thus, " He struck me " becomes " I tvas struck by him." . 

Page 10 and those following furnish copious examples of the 
change in the orthography of the Pronouns. 

48. Nouns, under similar circumstances, undergo no change 
in orthography; thus, "Friends invite friends" becomes 
" Friends are invited by friends." 

49. The Verb be, or any equivalent Verb, is followed by the 
same Case that preceded it; as, "Who do men say that I am ? " 
(that is, " Men say that I am who?"); " Whom do you take 
me to be?" (otherwise, if transposed, "You take me to be 
whom?"); " It is I, be not afraid;" " I took his brother to be 
him; ' " May is the fifth month;" "The fifth month is May;" 
" He was called Peter the Great." 

Numerous examples of the transposition which is possible in 
the two Cases before and after the Verb to be, can be found on 
pages 91 and 92, and these can be increased without limit, at the 
discretion of the teacher. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 123 

CASES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

50. Since the Subject of a Finite Verb is invariably in the 
Nominative Case, the only instance in which the Objective 
can precede the Verb be is in its Infinitive forms. (See 
page 54.) In the sentence, "It is impossible for him to tell 
the truth," the word him has no direct grammatical connection 
with to tell. This will appear by omitting the words "to tell 
the truth." It is evident that him is the object of the Prepo- 
sition for, and that the Infinitive Phrase "to tell the truth" 
is really in apposition with the superfluous Pronoun it. But 
in the sentence, " He took me to be him," there is such an 
intimate relation intended to be expressed that it is impossible 
to omit the words "to be him" without mutilating it. In all 
such constructions an Objective follows the Verb to be, to agree 
with the Objective preceding it. 

51. The Possessive Case is the relation of a Noun or Pro- 
noun to another before which it is placed to denote possession or 
ownership; as, " George's instruments have been stolen;" " Her 
teeth are beautiful;" " I have lost my alt;" "You have a new 
hat; where is your old one?" 

52. The Possessive Case of Nouns in the Singular Number 
is distinguished by an apostrophe and S; when the Plural is 
formed by the addition of s, an apostrophe alone marks the 
Possessive; and when the Plural is formed with any terminal 
letter other than S, the apostrophe and S are both used; as, 
that man's money; ladies' gloves; men's clothing. 

53. The Possessive Case of a Noun ma} r be converted into 
Objective by placing it, preceded by the Preposition of, after 
the word representing the thing possessed; thus, " The plan- 
et's motion " becomes " The motion of the planet." 

54. Possession is not always ownership. The latter is in- 
dicated by adding the word own to each of the Pronouns in 
the Possessive Case; as, " This is my chair while I am sitting 
in it, but it is not my own chair." 

55. When the word indicating the thing possessed has 
already been mentioned at least once, it may be elided or sup- 
pressed when the Pronoun in the Possessive Case alludes to 
persons and not to inanimate objects; as, " They sold their 
cow, but we killed ours." 



124 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

CASES OF NOUNS AND PKONOUNS. 

56. The Independent Case is a form of Nouns and Pro- 
nouns resembling the Nominative, but having no intimate 
connection with any Verb, such as the Nominative has. 
There are two different constructions: First, Independent by- 
address ; second, Independent before a Participle. 

In the Latin and other languages the Independent Case by 
address is called the Vocative, which, however, is never used 
in the Independent Case before a Participle. 

There are also in the Latin language two additional Cases or 
relations besides the four that correspond to the four used in 
English. They are the Dative, used after the Preposition to, 
and the Ablative, used after by or with. The former shows 
destination and the latter instrument. 

57. When a person, or a thing personified, is made the 
subject of direct address, it requires the Independent Case; 
as, "Alexander, Frank has arrived." 

58. A Participle, being incapable of having a Nominative, 
requires the Independent Case to precede it when no con- 
nection with the succeeding portion of the sentence exists; as, 
" The moon having arisen, we resumed our journey." 

If, however, any direct relation exists between the word pre- 
ceding the Participle and the clause following it, the preceding- 
word is in the Nominative Case before the succeeding Finite 
Verb; as, Caesar, having been crowned with the highest honors 
of his countiy, fell by the hand of an assassin." 

59. Apposition is the construction of two or more equivalent 
expressions in the same Case. That which explains, limits, 
describes, or identifies the other, is said to be in apposition 
with it; thus, in the sentence, "The chairman, Louis H. 
Davies, referred the investigation of Benjamin Williams, 
the contractor's, claim, to James Anderson, Henry Harvey, 
and George Coombs, the special committee," Louis H. Da- 
vies is in the Nominative Case in Apposition with chairman, 
contractor's in the Possessive Case in Apposition with Benja- 
min Williams, and special committee in the Objective Case 
in Apposition with the three preceding names. 

When two Nouns are in Apposition in the Possessive Case, 
the apostrophe and s are omitted from the first. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



125 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

SINGULAR. 
Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Boy, boy's, boy. 

Man, man's, man. 

Lady, lady's, lady. 

Secretary, secretary's, secretary. 

Wharf, wharfs, wharf. 

Knife, knife's, knife. 

Jesus, Jesus', Jesus. 

PLURAL. 

Boys, boys', boys. 

Men, men's, men. 

Ladies, ladies', ladies. 

Secretaries, secretaries', secretaries. 

Wharves, wharves', wharves. 

Knives, knives', knives. 

The Plural Form of Jesus is wanting. 

60. When a Noun in the Singular Number terminates with 
s, or an equivalent sound, and particularly when the final s 
is preceded b}^ another, the apostrophe without s is used in 
the Possessive; as, Lazarus' death; for Jesus' sake; for 
goodness' sake; for conscience' sake; Moses' rod. 

61. The great majority of Common Nouns should never be 
used in the Possessive Case, because the Objective (sec. 53, 
page 123) is more euphonious; thus, "The pride of life" is 
much preferable to "Life's pride;" and "The severity of the 
weather " is in much better taste than "The weather's se- 
verity." 

62. When the Nominative Plural ends with s, the apos- 
trophe is placed last; as, ladies' gloves. But when it is formed 
in any other manner, the Plural resembles the Singular in the 
Possessive Case; as, men's clothing, children's toys. 

63. Letters of the Alphabet and Cardinal Numbers form 
the Plural Nominative by adding an apostrophe and S; as, six 
x's, three 4's. 

64. Proper Names are only used in the Plural Number to 
denote a race, family, or succession; as, the Hindoos, the Hen- 
rys, the Smiths. 



126 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR. 
Pers. Gender. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

1. Com. I, my, mine, or my own, me. 

2. Com. Thou, thy, thine, or thine own, thee. 

3. 3Ias. He, his, his, or his own, liim. 
3. Fern. She, her, hers, or her own, her. 
3. Neu. It, its, its, or its own, it. 

PLURAL. 

1. Com. We, our, ours, or our own, us. 

2. Com. Ye or you, your, yours, or your own, you. 

3. 31as. They, their, theirs, or their own, them. 
3. Fern. They, their, theirs, or their own, them. 
3. Neu. They, their, theirs, or their own, them. 

The Personal Pronoun thou is now seldom used except in 
sacred writings, prayers, poetry, and music, or in orations and 
addresses. Instead of it we use the plural form, you. 

Besides the use of it as a Personal Pronoun, it forms an 
idiomatic word; as, " It occurred to me that nothing had yet 
been done;" "Has it come to this? " 

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 







SINGULAR. 




1. 


Com. 


Myself, 


wanting, 


myself. 


2. 


Com. 


Thyself, 


wanting, 


thyself. 


3. 


Mas. 


Himself, 


wanting, 


himself. 


3. 


Fern. 


Herself, 


. wanting, 


herself. 


3. 


Neu. 


Itself, 


wanting, 

PLURAL. 


itself. 


1. 


Com. 


Ourselves, 


wanting, 


ourselves. 


2. 


Com. 


Yourselves, 


wanting, 


yourselves. 


3. 


Mas. 


Themselves, 


wanting, 


themselves. 


3. 


Fern. 


Themselves, 


wanting, 


themselves. 


3. 


Neu. 


Themselves, 


wanting. 


themselves 



G5. When a Reflexive Pronoun is used in the Objective 
Case, the act is represented as being expended upon the actor 
who performed it. (See page 109.) 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 127 

KELATIVE PEONOUNS. 

66. There are four classes of Pronouns: Personal, Relative, 
Interrogative, and Adjective. 

67. Relative Pronouns are those which are used to combine 
several propositions referring- to the same person or thing, 
by establishing some relation which exists between them; as, 
" He who reads will run." (See pages 66, 68, etc.) 

68. The Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun is the word or 
expression preceding it to which it relates. In the sentence, 
"An aged veteran, who had survived many battles, then arose 
and offered his services," veteran is the Antecedent of who, 
the Relative Pronoun. 

69. A Relative Pronoun always has the same Number 
and Person as its Antecedent; as, "I, who am now here, 
was then residing there." Who, in this sentence, is First Per- 
son and Singular Number, like I, its antecedent, and requires 
the Yerb am to be of the same construction. 

70. The Simple Relative Pronouns are: Who, for per- 
sons; which, for things and inferior animals; that, some- 
times preferable to -who and which; and as, exclusively used 
after such, as a complement; as, a man "who thinks; a dog 
which barks; one that will answer; such people as attend. 

71. That is preferred to who or which: 1. For restricting 
the signification of the Antecedent; 2. "When there are sev- 
eral Antecedents, consisting of both persons and things; 
3. Where the verbal construction, euphony, or association 
with other words or phrases, requires its use. The following- 
examples will illustrate this: " Expressions, which are equiv- 
alent to Nouns, may be substituted for them," implies that all 
expressions, without any exception, are equivalent to Nouns; 
but "Expressions that are equivalent to Nouns may be substi- 
tuted for them," indicates that the substitution is to be re- 
stricted to such expressions as Infinitive Phrases or any oth- 
ers that have the same construction. Again, "All the men 
and horses that were killed in the battle were buried during 
the night/' would be mutilated by the use of who or which 
in place of that. The sentence, "He that hath ears to hear," 
is also evidently much more euphonious than "He who hath 
ears to hear," etc. 



128 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

72. A Compound Relative Pronoun is one that includes 
both the Simple Relative Pronoun and its Antecedent. The 
principal Compound Relative Pronoun is the word What, 
which may represent at the same time two Nominatives, two 
Objectives, a Nominative and an Objective, or an Objective 
and a Nominative; as, " What affects me will interest you;" 
" What I hear I remember;" " What you do will please me;" 
" What comes in you may take." (See pages 81 and 82.) 

73. Besides what, the compound words, whatever, -who- 
ever, whichever, whatsoever, whosoever, and whichso- 
ever, are used as Compound Relative Pronouns. 

74. A Preposition that would otherwise precede a Simple 
Relative Pronoun may properly be used after the Compound 
Relative Pronoun, -what; thus, the Sentence, " Call -who- 
ever I shall speak to," becomes, when transposed, " Call the 
person to whom I shall speak;" and " I found what I was 
looking for" becomes " I found the thing for which I was 
looking." 

75. A Preposition used with whom or which must precede 
it, but it can not be used with that unless it follows it; as, 
" The boy that I sent for came'" would be very awkward if 
written, " The boy for that I sent came;" but iC The boy for 
whom I sent came " would be preferable to either. 

76. When the Simple Relative Pronoun is in the Objective 
Case, it can, with propriety, be omitted; as, "I gave him all 
(that) he wanted," in which that can be dispensed with. 

The proper method of stiutying these Definitions of Simple 
and Compound Relative Pronouns is to write the Exercises in 
Part I., commencing on page 65, either as Dictation Exercises 
or otherwise, as explained on the introductory pages. Contem- 
poraneous lessons should be assigned for home study from 
these Definitions. This will invest the work with a charm that 
can not otherwise be infused into the study of Grammar; and 
instead of being hostile to this much abused subject, the schol- 
ars will become interested in what will be one of the most at- 
tractive studies of the school-room. These remarks are appli- 
cable to all the Definitions in Part II. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 129 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

77. Interrogative Pronouns are those that are used to ask 
questions. 

78. The simplest Interrogative Pronoun is what, as used 
to respond to a question or an invocation; as, "Sam!" 
"What?" "Did you pay the money?" "What?" 

The word What is used in an entirely different sense as the 
initial word in such Exclamations as, t: What a remarkable word 
this is!" It is then called an Exclamatory Sign. See Part IY. 

79. The Simple Relative Pronouns, who and which, 
may also become Interrogative Pronouns; as, " Who is it? " 
" Which is mine ?"" " What is the reason ? " 

80. Who and which are used to ask questions of discrimi- 
nation and of identification between persons and things respect- 
ively; while what is used in demanding an explanation of anj 7 - 
thiug; as, " Who was the second President of the United 
States? " " Which is most abundant in the atmosphere, oxygen 
or hydrogen ? " " What causes iron ships to float ?" " What be- 
comes of the smoke ? " 

81. Who is incapable of being converted into an Adjective, 
but "which or what may be so used with the Noun expressed 
after it; as, "What man is he that shall not see death?' 
" Which window did you close?" " What simple substances 
are contained in an egg ? " 

82. Whatever can be used as an Interrogative Pronoun 
for what; as, " Whatever can have become of my knife? " 

83. Who, which, what (except when used alone, as in an- 
swer to a question), and "whatever, as Interrogative Pro- 
nouns, must be parsed as such when standing alone, giving 
Gender. Person, Number, and Case; but all, except -who, 
become Pronominal Adjectives when Nouns are expressed or 
understood after them. They^may then be parsed as Interrog- 
ative Pronominal Adjectives. 

Models and Formulae for Parsing are given at tbe end of 
these Definitions. There the pupils can find the form for pars- 
iug all the different kinds of Pronouns. The Compound Kela- 
tive Pronoun should be separated into a Simple one with its 
Antecedent; but when the word what is a Simple Interroga- 
tive, as in sec. 78, it is disposed of accordingly. 



130 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

ADJECTIVE PBONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

84. An Adjective is a word or combination of words used to 
describe a Noun, restrict its meaning, or limit its number or 
quantity; as, good, more beautiful, most fortunate, many, much 
more numerous. 

85. An Adjective Pronoun, or, as it is sometimes called, a 
Pronominal Adjective, is an Adjective that can be used 
alone, by omitting the Noun which it modifies; as, that (book), 
many (people), all (the boys), one (person). 

86. Adjective Pronouns are divided into four groups, called 
Demonstrative, Distributive, Indefinite, and Numeral. 

87. The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are: This, 
that, these, those, former, latter, same. 

88. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are: Each, each 
other, every, every other, either, neither. 

89. The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are: All, another, 
any, any one, any other, anything, both, few, many, 
many a, no, nobody, no one, none, not a, not an, not any, 
nothing, other, one, one another, several, so-and-so, some, 
some other, somebody, some one, something, such, such 
a one, sundry, and whole. 

Anything is a Pronoun; Adjective form, any. Many a is 
an Adjective; Pronominal form, many. No is an Adjective; 
Pronominal form, none. Nobody is a Pronoun; Adjective 
form, no. No one is a Pronoun; Adjective form, no. Not a 
is an Adjective; Pronominal form, not any. Nothing is a Pro- 
noun: Adjective form, no. One another is a Pronoun; Adjec- 
tive form, wanting. So-and-so is a Pronoun; Adjective form, 
wanting. Somebody is a Pronoun; Adjective form, some. 
Some one is a Pronoun; Adjective form, some. Something 
is a Pronoun; Adjective form, some. Such a one is a Pro- 
noun; Adjective form, such. Sundry is an Adjective; Pro- 
nominal form, sundries. All the others are both Adjectives 
and Pronouns. 

90. The Numeral Adjective Pronouns are: One, two, three, 
four, five, etc., which are called Cardinal; and first, second, 
t^ird, fourth, fifth, etc., which are called Ordinal. 

91. One, other, and another are declined as Noims. One 
and other have a Plural; but another has none. 



131 

COMPAEISON OE ADJECTIVES. 

92. Almost all Descriptive and a few Restrictive or Lim- 
iting Adjectives are capable of Comparison; as, "This is 
the "best book I have ever read;" " The mosquitoes were more 
numerous in the woods." " The Pyramids are older than Saint 
Peter's; the Nile is older than the Pyramids; how much older 
than the dome of St. Peter's must be the waters of the Nile!" 

93. Comparison is the contrast of the degree of quality 
in the same object or in several objects when compared. There 
are four Degrees of Comparison, the Positive, Comparative, 
Ultra-comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive is the quality itself, without anything to com- 
pare with it. The Positive does not become a Degree until a 
comparison has been made with the same quality in a greater or 
less degree; thus, in the sentence, " The eagle is strong," no 
particular degree of strength is expressed. Only the positive 
quality is denoted. 

The Comparative is a greater or less degree of quality 
possessed by one of two objects that have been contrasted, or 
in the same object; thus, " The eagle is stronger than the 
robin," or " The robin is less strong than the eagle," shows a 
greater degree of the quality of strength in the eagle than in 
the robin. 

The Ultra-comparative is a degree of quality greater or 
less than the Comparative, in a third object that is compared 
with only two others: " The eagle is stronger than the robin; 
the robin is stronger than the butterfly; much stronger, then, 
is the eagle than the butterfly." The expression much stronger 
shows a comparison between the first and third. The latter, be- 
ing beyond the second, has been indicated by prefixing Ultra 
to the word Comparative. 

The Superlative is the highest or lowest degree of quality; 
" He is the most benevolent man in the city;" "A point is the 
smallest possible space." 

As far as the author is aware, no attempt has heretofore been 
made to assign a place to the additional Degree of Comparison 
which we have called the Ultra-comparative. Its utility will at 
once appear to all who are familiar with the frequency of its oc- 
currence in the demonstrations of Higher Mathematics. 



132 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

94. Most Adjectives are compared by prefixing more, much 
more, and most to the Positive, to form the Comparative, 
Ultra-eomparative, and Superlative Degrees, respectively; 
as, beautiful, more beautiful, much more beautiful, most 
beautiful. 

95. For lower Degrees, less, much less, and least are used. 

96. Many Adjectives, especially those of one syllable, are 
compared by the addition of er and est to the Positive, to 
form the Comparative and Superlative Degrees, respect- 
ively, and prefixing much to the Comparative to form the 
Ultra-eomparative; as, rich, richer, much richer, richest. 

97. The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, 
by a change of orthography: 



Positive. i 


Comparative. 


Ultra-comparative. 


Superlative. 


Aft (adverb), 


after, 


wanting, 


aftermost. 


Bad, 


worse, 


much worse, 


worst. 


Evil, 


worse, 


much worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


much farther, 


farthest. 


Fore, 


former, 


wanting, 


foremost or first. 


Forth (adverb) 


, further, 


wanting, 


furthest or furthermost. 


Good, 


better, 


much better, 


best. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


wanting, 


hindmost or hindermost. 


111, 


worse, 


much worse, 


worst. 


Inside, 


inner, 


wanting, 


inmost or innermost. 


Late, 


later, 


much later, 


latest or last. 


Little, 


less or lesser, 


much less, 


least. 


Many, 


more, 


much more, 


most. 


Much, 


more, 


much more, 


most. 


Near or nigh, 


nearer, 


much nearer, 


nearest or next. 


Old (things), 


older, 


much older, 


oldest. 


Old (persons), 


the elder, 


much the elder, 


eldest. 


Out (adverb), 


utter, 


wanting, 


utmost or uttermost. 


Outside, 


outer, 


wanting, 


outmost or outermost. 


Under, 


wanting, 


wanting, 


uiidermost. 


Up (adverb), 


upper, 


wanting, 


upmost or uppermost. 


Top, 


wanting, 


wanting, 


topmost. 



98. Comparatives ending with ior are followed by to instead 
of than, which follows ordinary Comparatives; as, "Mine is 
superior to his." 

99. The Adjectives a or an and the are also called Articles, 
of which the latter is called Definite and the former the In- 
definite. An loses the n before consonants. Both a and an 
are corruptions of ane, the Anglo-Saxon word for one. 

Incomparable Adjectives are those that are incapable of 
comparison; as, eternal. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 133 

ADVERBS. 

100. An Adverb is a word or expression used to modify an 
attribute. 

101. An attribute is a condition, a quality, or a feeling, 
and is represented by a Verb, an Adjective, or an Adverb; 
thus, "God is very powerful;" "He deals justly;" "You 
walk too rapidly." Here, the attribute represented by the Ad- 
jective " powerful" is modified by the Adverb " very;" the 
Adverb ''justly " is the modifier in the attribute of just deal- 
ing; while the Adverb " too" modifies the attribute of rapid- 
ity in walking. (Def. 32, Part IV.) 

102. Hence an Adverb always modifies a Verb, an Adjec- 
tive, or another Adverb. 

103. An Adverb may be formed from any suitable Adjective 
by simply adding the termination ly; as, glad, gladly. 

104. Many Adverbs, like Adjectives, can be compared. 
Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and est; others, by 
prefixing more and most; while a few are Irregular: 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Decidedly, more decidedly, most decidedly. 

Gladly, more gladly, most gladly. 

Forth, further, furthest. 

Badly, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

105. An Adverb that is incapable of comparison is said to 
be Incomparable;, as, wholly, absolutely. 

One of the most common errors in the use of language is the 
substitution of Adjectives and Adverbs for one another, thus 
giving rise to great confusion of ideas, and very careless habits 
in conversation. Such expressions as " How pretty the room 
is decorated!" for "How prettily," etc.; also "He punished 
him good" for "He punished him well," are examples of the 
most frequent faults. An excellent method is to appoint a 
critic each day to note errors that can be detected, and correct 
them at night before dismissal, illustrating them at the black- 
board, without any personal allusions. 



134 



CLASSIFICATION; OE, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

106. Adverbs may be divided into seven classes: 



1. Time 



2. Place 



f 1. Point of time . . . .Instantly. 

2. Duration Continually 

3. Repetition Often. 



1. Rest in There. 

2. Motion to Back. 

3. Motion from Away. 

4. Alternate motion . . To and fro. 



3. Manner 



4. Limit 



ri. 

u 

r 1 - 

I 3. 



Quality Wickedly 

Degree Very. 

Measure Half. 

Number Once. 

Order First. 



5. Certainty 



1. Affirmation Yes. 



6. Cause and effect 



2. Negation No. 

3. Probability Perhaps. 

I 4. Assurance Indeed. 

r 1. Reason Why. 

■\ 2. Consequence Therefore. 

I 3. Necessity Of course. 



7. Accompanying cir- 
cumstance 



1. Connective Whereby. 

2. Afterthought However. 

3. Force of assertion . Verily. 

4. Custom Usually. 

The classification of Adverbs made by different authors varies 
so much that it is not advisable to require the scholars to com- 
mit them to memory in any given order. But they should be 
familiar with the principal classes; and to accomplish this, lists 
should be written out containing as many Adverbs as possible 
belonging to each class, and specifying those that may properly 
be classified in more than one group; as, scarcely, in the Sen- 
tences, " I had scarcely spoken when the clock struck," and 
" The locomotive could scarcely move the train;" the first re- 
lating to the point of time, and the second to degree. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 135 

PREPOSITIONS. 

107. A Preposition is a relation-word; or, it is a word used 
to denote place or position. PrepositionsLare, therefore, often 
called place-words. » To illustrate this, let the teacher take a 
book in. one hand and a piece of paper (or any other object) in the 
other. Place the paper on the book; then under it and on the 
table, or between the table and the book; make the paper re- 
volve round the book, and wrap it around it. Place the paper 
near the book, then over, within, next to, above, by, or 
opposite to it. Then take it away from, from off, or from 
within the book. In this manner illustrate the use of as many 
Prepositions as the class can mention. 

A Preposition shows the relation of Nouns and Pronouns 
to each other and to other words; as, the cover of the box, 
one of us, Lord of all, a hen with chickens, come to me. 

108. The Object of a Preposition is the word following it to 
which it calls attention; as, in the preceding section, box, us, 
all, chickens, and me are the Objects of the Prepositions 
that precede them. 

109. A Preposition with its Object can be used as an Ad- 
jective or an Adverb; as, " He went from the city in a 
hurry," can be made to read, "He went away hastily," in 
which the Adverbs away aud hastily are substituted for the 
expressions from the city and in a hurry. And again, " The 
Generals of France were men of the people," can be changed 
to " The French Generals were popular men," in which the 
Adjectives French and popular are substituted for the expres- 
sions of France and of the people. 

A Preposition with its Object, including modifying words, 
is called a Prepositional Phrase, as explained in Part IV., 
Def. 31. 

110. An Inseparable Preposition is one that can be used in 
connection with a Verb without any other grammatical con- 
struction; as, " He disliked to be laughed at;" " They were 
brought in;" " He may be looked for at any moment." At, 
for, and in are Inseparable Prepositions. The Inseparable 
Preposition, being in reality a component part of the Verb, 
should be parsed with it. " He uplifts the fallen" is the same 
as "He lifts up the fallen." 



136 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 





LIST OF 


ADVERBS. 




accordingly, 


forward, 


never, 


thence, 


again, 


gladly, 


nevertheless, 


there, 


ago, 


haply, 


no, 


thereby, 


alike, 


hardly, 


not, 


thither, 


almost, 


hardly ever, 


now, 


thrice, 


alone, 


hence, 


now and. then, 


to and fro, 


always, 


here, 


nowadays, 


to wit, 


and so forth, 


hereafter, 


often, 


too, 


apart, 


hereby, 


once, 


to-day, ' 


as, 


hereon, 


one by one, 


to-morrow, 


as follows, 


heretofore, 


only, 


to-night, 


aside, 


hither, 


out, 


together, 


asunder, 


hitherto, 


outdoors, 


twice, 


at once, 


how, 


outright, 


two-fold, 


away, 


however, 


over, 


usually, 


backwards, 


howsoever, 


over and over, 


very, 


barely, 


ill, 


overboard, 


verily, 


better, 


immediately, 


particularly, 


viz. , 


by, 


in, 


partly, 


yea, 


by-and-by, 


indeed, 


perad venture, 


yes, 


by-the-bye, 


indoors, 


perhaps, 


yesterday, 


certainly, 


in fact, 


possibly, 


well, 


enough, 


in line, 


probably, 


when, 


etcetera, 


inside, 


cpuite, 


whenever, 


even, 


instead, 


rather, 


whence, 


ever, 


last, 


readily, 


where, 


evermore, 


least, 


scarcely, 


whereat, 


exactly, 


less, 


seldom, 


whereby, 


exceedingly, 


little, 


since, 


whereon, 


far, 


low, 


so, 


wheresoever, 


far away, 


more, 


soon, 


wherever, 


first, 


much, 


sometimes, 


whilst, 


forever, 


nay, 


sore, 


withal, 


forever and ever, 


namely, 


sure, 


within, 


forth, 


near, 


surely, 


without, 


forthwith, 


nearly, 


then, 


worse. 



This list of Adverbs contains most of those that are in com- 
mon use, and is far more complete than the lists usually given. 
In addition, there are many other words, such as the combina- 
tions, adrift, afloat, awake, hereinbefore, aforetime, etc., 
which, however, may readily be recognized, in common with all 
Adverbs, by ascertaining whether they answer the questions, 
"How?" "When?" "Where?" " Under what circumstances?" 
"To what extent?" etc. 

As a general rule, all words formed from Adjectives by the 
addition of the final syllable ly may be classified as Adverbs; 
thus, effectually, from effectual. 

Many words assume the functions of several parts of speech; 
thus more may be an Adjective or an Adverb ; and for a Con- 
junction or a Preposition. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



137 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



abaft, 


down, 


in upon, 


pi«s(-B, 


aboard, 


down among, 


less, 


previous to, 


about, 


down at, 


like, 


regarding, 


above, 


down by, 


minus ( — ), 


respecting, 


according to, 


down from, 


multiplied by (x), 


round, 


across, 


down in, 


next to, 


round and round. 


adjacent to, 


down on, 


notwithstanding, 


save, 


after, 


down to, 


of, 


similar to, 


against, 


down under, 


off, 


since, 


along, 


during, 


off from, 


subject to, 


amid, 


ere, 


off to, 


subsequent to, 


amidst, 


except, 


off with, 


through, 


among, 


equal to (=), 


on, 


throughout, 


amongst, 


for, 


on to, 


till, 


around, 


from, 


opposite, 


to, 


as far as, 


from among, 


opposite to, 


touching, 


as to, 


from across, 


out among, 


towards, 


at, 


from before, 


out at, 


under, 


athwart, 


from behind, 


out beyond, 


underneath, 


away from, 


from between, 


out by, 


until, 


because of, 


from beyond, 


out from, 


unto, 


before, 


from off, 


out in, 


up, 


behind, 


from over, 


Out of, 


up above, 


below, 


from under, 


out on, 


up among, 


beneath, 


from underneath, 


out to, 


up at, 


beside, 


from within, 


out towards, 


u p by, 


besides, 


from without, 


over, 


up in, 


between, 


in, 


over among, 


upon, 


betwixt, 


in among, 


over at, 


up to, 


beyond, 


in at, 


over by, 


up with, 


by, 


in behind, 


over in, 


with, 


by means of, 


in on, 


over on, 


within, 


by reason of, 


in out of, 


over to, 


without, 


concerning, 


instead of, 


past, 


with regard to, 


contrary to, 


into, 


pending, 


with respect to, 


divided by {■+■), 


in under, 


per, 


worth. 



A great discrepancy exists between the lists of Prepositions 
and other Parts of Speech given by different authors. In the 
list given above the mathematical signs are all included, as 
well as other expressions, such as like and worth. " Four 
plus five " so much resembles " four with five/' or "four com- 
bined with five," that it is difficult to detect any difference. 
Again, " seven by nine " is exactly analogous to ' c seven mul- 
tiplied by nine;" and " seven into fourteen equals two" has 
precisely the same effect as " seven divided into fourteen," 
etc., or " fourteen divided by seven," etc.; so that any attempt 
to prove them to be different from one another seems like mak- 
ing a distinction without a difference. 



138 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 

111. A Compound Preposition is a combination of two or 
more simple Prepositions, or other words, which together pos- 
sess the same force and nature as an ordinary Preposition; as, 
" He walked up to the next street, contrary to my instruc- 
tions." Here up to signifies that he walked on some other 
street upwards to the next street. Up alone would mean that 
he walked on the next street; while to alone would signify that 
he went as far as the next street, approaching from any 
direction. 

In some cases the two words are combined, as in the Prepo- 
sitions upon (from up and on), into, within, without; but 
usage probably determined this previous to the invention and 
use of printing. 

The difference in meaning is in most cases so great that they 
have been considered deserving of special consideration in the 
list on page 137. 

In the sentence, " The ship sailed out beyond the island," 
out is manifestly not an Adverb, as in " The school is out/' or 
" The boat has been bailed out/' for then the meaning would 
be that the sailing out took place beyond the island. But when 
out beyond is considered as a Preposition, the point of de- 
parture is on this side of the island. 

In the sentence, "Father has returned from across the 
river," the meaning is that he went across and returned from 
the other side; while from alone would signify that he returned 
without going across; and across alone, that he first came from 
the other side to this, and afterwards went back, or returned to 
the other side. 

Again, in " We could see in behind the curtain," our point 
of observation was on this side of the curtain; but behind 
alone would indicate that the observer's position was inside, 
or on the oilier side of the curtain, and that he was able to see 
there. 

The distinction is exactly analogous in. the difference between 
in and into. We say, "The fish leaped in the water," as it 
was already there; but " The boy leaped into the water," be- 
cause he was out of the water when he leaped. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 139 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

112. Conjunctions are words used to connect parts of Sen- 
tences. 

113. Those that connect parts that are in harmony, or of sim- 
ilar signification, are called Copulative Conjunctions; as, 

" The sun rose, and the clouds were dispersed." 

114. Those that connect parts that are in contrast, or of dif- 
ferent signification, are called Disjunctive Conjunctions; as, 
" The sun rose, but the clouds still remained." 

115. When but can be changed to only, it is an Adverb; as, 
" He took but a few." 

116. When but can be changed to except, it is a Preposi- 
tion; as, "He took all but two." 

117. The Conjunction or has two uses. When it shows an 
alternative, it is Disjunctive. This use requires no comma; 
as, " I will have two or three." But when it is explanatory of 
the preceding expression, it is Copulative, and generally re- 
quires a comma; as, " It requires two and three, or five." In 
the latter case, or can be changed to that is, by which means 
it can be recognized. 

118. Many words possess such a variety of signification and 
adaptability to be used under various circumstances, that it 
is very difficult, at times, to classify them. To illustrate this, 
we may compare " The boy with his father went to the city," 
with "The boy and his father went to the city." It seems 
almost impossible to regard with otherwise than as a Conjunc- 
tion. But it is generally considered a Preposition. 

119. As is another instance. In "It is as black as jet," it is 
an Adverb modifying the Adjective black; in "Such mem- 
bers as contribute are admitted free," it is a Relative Pronoun; 
in " They used hay as fuel," it may with great propriety be re- 
garded as a Preposition instead of for; in " Who wrote that 
as on the slate ?" it is a Noun; and in " The ice will melt, as 
it is so warmto-day," it is a Conjunction. As a general rule, 
the sense must guide us in determining the classification of all 
such doubtful words. There are hundreds of these in the 
language, and it will be found a most profitable and pleasing 
exercise to encourage the class in writing criticisms on words 
and illustrating their use in sentences. 



140 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

120. Perhaps the most remarkable instance is to be found in 
the word that. In the Sentence, "He says that that 'that' 
that you wrote is wrong," the first one is a Conjunction, the 
second an Adjective, the third a Noun, and the fourth a Pro- 
noun. A common error is found in the use of so. This word 
is always an Adverb when it precedes an Adjective that is to 
be intensified by it; thus, the Sentence, "He should not use 
such powerful medicine," should be written, " He should not 
use so powerful medicine," or " medicine so powerful," because 
such, which is an Adjective, cannot modify another Adjec- 
tive. But in cases like the last Sentence but one on the pre- 
ceding page, such is correctly used, as the three Adjectives, all, 
such, and doubtful, modify the Noun words. 

121. Correlative Conjunctions are those that are related 
together in pairs. They are more conspicuously Copulative or 
Disjunctive than single Conjunctions; as, 

Both — and. " Both the teacher and the scholars must be 
punctual." 

Either — or. " Either you or he must have done it." 

Neither — nor. " Neither the hens nor the turkeys are lay- 
ing just now." 

As — as. " It is about as worthless as it is cheap." 

So — as. " He is not so sure as to be able to swear to it." 

So — that. " I was so happy that I cried." 

Whether — or. " I do not care whether you go or stay at 
home." 

Though — yet. "Though he was unjustly accused, yet he 
submitted to the sentence." 

122. Copulative Conjunctions are divided into two groups : 
Connective; as, "Henry died and Edward succeeded him." 
And Continuative ; as, "Edward reigned after his father 
died." 

123. Disjunctive Conjunctions are also divided into two 
groups: Distributive; as, "He will come to-morrow or at 
some other time." And Adversative; as, "The hot sun soon 
caused the seeds to germinate, but the frost soon nipped all the 
blossoms." 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



141 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



f 1. Connective. 



Conjunctions. 



I. Copulative ■ • • -\ 



2. Continuative. 



I II. Disjunctive 



1. Distributive. 



I 2. Adversative . 



f Again, 

Also, 
| And, 
J As well as, 

Besides, 

Further, 

Furthermore, 
L Likewise. 

f Accordingly, 
After, 
Although, 
As, 
As if, 
Before, 
Because, 
Consequently, 
Ere, 
Except, 
Except that, 
Hence, 
However, 

If, 

So, 

So that, 

Than, 

That, 

Thence, 

Therefore, 

Though, 

Thus, 

Unless, 

Until, 

When, 

Whenever, 

Whence, 

Where, 

Wherefore, 

Whether, 

While, 

Whilst. 

f Either, 
j Meanwhile, 
j Neither, 

Nor, 

Or, 

Or else. 

But, 

However, 
Nevertheless, 
Notwithstanding. 
Rather than, 
Still, 
I Yet. 



142 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

INTEKJECTIONS. 

124. Interjections are expressions to denote sudden out- 
bursts of feeling, such as admiration, fear, anger, disgust, 
and rage; as in the following sentences, in which the first word 
of each is an example: 

Off! I shall have no more to do with you! 

Alas! he is dead! 

Oh! I have it now! 

Oh! what a large flock! 

Mercy ! what have I done ? 

Thanks ! you are very kind ! 

Hush! she is sleeping! 

Lo! the poor Indian! 

Pshaw! that is nothing! 

Hurrah ! the ship is launched ! 

What! at it again? 

Well! what are you going to do about it ? 

Why! your hair has all turned gray ! 

Ho! Charlie! 

Well done ! good and faithful servant ! 

125. All words commonly used to intensify expressions are 
Interjections. This includes all the inelegant words and 
phrases commonly called swearing, or profane language. 
These are all very much out of taste, and convey indescribable 
disgust and even pain to persons who do not use such language. 
Indeed, the best usage is to avoid, as much as possible, the use 
of all such phraseology. While it may provoke laughter, and 
afford mirth and fun for the thoughtless, it lowers us in the esti- 
mation of even those w 7 ho are addicted to its use. When in the 
presence of ladies even the most inveterate swearer does not 
presume to indulge in bad or profane language. This is the 
best evidence of its unfitness and vulgarity. It is also incon- 
trovertible proof that any one, no matter how much addicted to 
this habit, can cure himself of the degrading practice. This 
is addressed in all sincerity and seriousness to those who are so 
unfortunate as to have become victims to the insidious en- 
croachments of this pernicious vice. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 143 

THE YEKB.— EXEKCISE IN PARSING. 

The boy would have been killed. 

I must search more diligently. 

He has found some money. 

We may be here. 

You have an excellent memory. 

They have been picking flowers. 

I desire to stand. 

She should have been playing a tune. 

Having unlocked the door, I went in. 

Call the men to dinner. 

Be attending to me. 

After residing there a year. 

Would have been killed, .verb; prin. parts, kill, killed, killed; reg. ; trans.; 
passive; poten. ; pastperf. ; third; sing.; same as 

BOY. 

must search verb; p. p., search, searched, searched; reg.; intr. ; 

common; pot.; pres. ; first; sing.; same as I. 
has found verb; p. p., find, found, found; irreg. ; trans.; com.; 

ind. ; pres. ; perf. ; third sing. ; same as he. 
may be verb; p. p., am, was, been; irreg. ; intr. ; com. ; 

pot.; pres.; first; plural; same as we. 
have verb; p. p., have, had, had; irreg. ; trans. ; com. ; 

ind.; pres.; second; sing.; same as you. 
have been picking verb; p. p., pick, picked, picked; reg. ; trans. ; prog.; 

ind. ; pres. perf. ; third ; plu. ; same as they. 
desire verb. ; p. p., desire, desired, desired; reg. ; trans. ; 

com.; ind.; pres.; first; sing.; same as I. 
to stand verb; p. p., stand, stood, stood; irr. ; intr. ; com. ; 

inf.; pres.; used as a noun, object of desire. 
should have been playing. verb; p. p., play, played, played; reg.; trans.; 

prog. ; pot. ; past perf. ; third; sing. ; same as she. 
having unlocked verb; p. p., unlock, unlocked, unlocked; reg.; 

trans.; com.; participle; present; not finite. 
went verb; p. p., go, went, gone; irr. ; intr. ; com. ; ind. ; 

past; first; sing.; same as I. 
call verb; p. p., call, called, called; reg. ; trans. ; com. ; 

imper. ; pres. ; second; sing, or plu. ; nom. elided. 
be attending verb; p. p., attend, attended, attended; reg, ; intr. ; 

prog.; imper.; pres.; second; sing, orpin.; nom. 

elided. 
residing verb; p. p., reside, resided, resided; reg.; intr.; 

com.; participle; pres.; obj. after after. 



144 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE NOUN.— EXEKCISE IN PARSING. 

The man's hat was blown into the river. 

George ! Sam, the messenger, has returned! 

The dog has bitten John's right leg. 

The lights having been extinguished, we left. 

She gave my sister five books. 

The martyr dies for conscience' sake. 

The scholars have a holiday every Saturday. 

"Thy will be done!" 

" Thy kingdom come! " 

" O man, degenerate man, offend no more!" 

Go learn of brutes thy Maker to adore! " 

Many people were killed by the explosion. 

Man's com. n. ; mas.; third; sing. ; poss. ; with hat. 

hat com. n.; neu.; third; sing. ; nom. ; to was blown. 

river com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after into. 

George! prop. n. ; mas. ; second; sing.; indep. ; by address. 

Sam prop. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to has returned. 

messenger com. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; in app. with Sam. 

dog com. n. ; mas.; third; sing. ; nom.; to has bitten. 

John's prop. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; poss. ; with leg. 

leg com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after has bitten. 

lights com. n. ; neu. ; third; plu. ; indep. ; before a participle. 

sister com. n. ; fern. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after (to). 

books com. n. ; neu. ; third; plu. ; obj. ; after gave. 

martyr com. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to dies. 

conscience' com n. , neu.; third; sing.; poss.; with sake. 

sake com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after for. 

scholars . com. n. ; com.; third; plu.; nom. ; to have. 

holiday com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after have. 

Saturday prop. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after (on). 

will abs. n.; neu. ; third; sing.; obj. ; after (let). 

kingdom col. n.; neu. ; third; sing. ; nom.; to (may) come. 

man com. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; indep. ; by address. 

brutes com. n. ; com. ; third; plu. ; obj. ; after or. 

Maker .prop. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after to adore. 

people col. n. ; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to WERE killed. 

In the eighth and ninth examples the construction has been 
varied; both, however, may be construed alike: " (Let) thy will 
(to) be done," or " (I pray that) thy will (may) be done;" and 
the same construction for the ninth example. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 145 

THE PRONOUN.— EXEECISE IN PARSING. 

"Thou understandest our thoughts afar off." 

" Give us this clay our daily bread." 

" Get thee behind me, Satan!" 

I gave you the money that I found." 

He will tell you that story that he told me. 

That which lives dies at last. 

Observe what happens. 

We who know each other should help one another. 

"It is I! be not afraid!" 

"Frank!" "What?" 

What has become of the little ones ? 

Were there none growing in the garden ? 

Thou pers. pron. ; mas.; second; sing. ; nom. ; to understandest. 

our pers. pron. ; com. ; first; plu. ; poss. ; with thoughts. 

us pers. pron. ; com. ; first; plu. ; obj. ; after (to). 

our j)ers. pron. ; com. ; first; plu. ; poss. ; with bread. 

thee pers. pron. ; mas. ; second; sing. ; obj. ; after GET. 

me pers. pron. ; mas. ; first; sing. ; obj. ; after behind. 

I pers. pron.; com. ; first; sing.; nom.; to gave. 

you pers. pron. ; com. ; second; sing. ; obj. ; after (to). 

that rel. pron. ; neu. : third; sing. ; obj. ; after found. 

He pers. pron. ; mas.; third; sing. ; nom.; to will tell. 

you pers. pron. ; com. ; second; sing, or plu. ; obj. ; after (to). 

that pronominal adj. ; modifying STORY. 

that rel. pron. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after told. 

me pers. pron. ; com. ; first; sing. ; obj. ; after (to). 

that adj. pron. ; com. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to dies. 

which rel. pron.; com. third; sing.; nom.; to lives. 

what . . . . , com. rel. pron. ; equivalent to that which. 

that adj. pron. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after observe. 

which rel. pron.; neu. ; third; sing.; nom.; to happens. 

'We pers. pron. ; com. ; first; plu. ; nom. ; to should help. 

who rel. pron. ; com. ; first; plu. ; nom. ; to know. 

each other adj. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after know. 

one another adj. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after should HELP. 

It pers. pron.; impersonal; idiomatic; nom. ; to is. 

I pers. pron. ; mas. ; first; sing. ; nom. ; after IS. 

What? interrog. pron.; replying to the invocation. 

What interrog. pron.; impersonal; nom. ; to has become. 

ones adj. pron. ; indef.; com. ; third; plu. ; obj. ; after or. 

none adj. pron. ; indef. ; neu. ; third; plu. ; nom. ; to were growing. 

7 



146 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



THE ADJECTIVE.— EXEECISE IN PARSING. 

He is a most intolerable fool. 

Intolerant bigots persecuted their defenseless victims. 

All our rosebushes are dead. 

More people were killed yesterday. 

Several kind old gentlemen spoke to the little boy. 

He is less responsible than his brother. 

A very great famine prevailed. 

Three beautiful birds died on the third day. 

He became a much greater man than his father. 

She is a woman of superior skill and ability. 

A very Daniel has come to judgment. 

You are sawing the wood too short. 

Some worthless old horses were killed. 



A adjective 

most intolerable adjective 

intolerant adjective 

defenseless adjective 

all adjective 

dead adjective 

more adjective 

several adjective 

kind adjective 

old adjective 

the adjective 

little adjective 

less responsible adjective 

great .adjective 

three adjective 

beautiful adjective 

third , adjective 

much greater adjective 

superior adjective 

very adjective 

short adjective 

some adjective 

worthless adjective 

old adjective 



article; limiting fool. 
superlative; describing fool. 
positive; describing bigots. 
positive; describing victims. 
pronominal; limiting rosebushes. 
incomparable; describing rosebushes. 
comparative; limiting people. 
pronominal; limiting gentlemen. 
positive; describing gentlemen. 
positive; describing gentlemen. 
article; identifying boy. 
positive; describing boy. 
comparative; describing (person). 
positive; limiting famine. 
numeral; cardinal; limiting birds. 
positive; describing birds. 
numeral; ordinal; limiting day. 
ultra-comparative; describing man. 
comparative; limiting skill and ability. 
positive; identifying Daniel. 
positive; describing the sawed wood. 
pronominal; limiting horses. 
positive; describing HORSES. 
positive; describing horses. 



A Pronoun that may be used as an Adjective is a Pronomi- 
nal Adjective when so used; and an Adjective used as a Pro- 
noun, instead of the modified word, is an Adjective Pronoun. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 147 

THE ADVEBB.— EXEKCISE IN PARSING. 

He is exceedingly old and probably quite blind. 

They will be here to-morrow or very soon thereafter. 

Never put off till to-morrow a disagreeable duty. 

You should always first lock the doors. 

Afterwards you can easily unlock them. 

I came back immediately afterwards. 

He almost invariably speaks incorrectly. 

Why do you cry ? Perhaps you are afraid. 

No, indeed, I am not afraid; therefore I shall go. 

Well, for ten days consecutively he was absent. 

Never speak hesitatingly. 

Exceedingly adverb; modifying old, intensively. 

probably adverb; modifying is, expressing doubt. 

quite adverb; modifying blind, in degree. 

here adverb; modifying will be, showing place. 

to-morrow adverb; modifying will be, indicating time. 

very adverb; modifying soon, in degree. 

soon adverb; modifying will be, indicating time. 

thereafter adverb; modifying soon, showing time. 

never adverb; modifying put, by limiting time. 

off adverb; modifying put, showing delay. 

always adverb; modifying should lock, in time. 

first adverb; modifying should lock, in order. 

afterwards adverb; modifying can unlock, in time. 

easily adverb; modifying can unlock, showing facility. 

back adverb; modifying came, showing motion to. 

immediately adverb; modifying afterwards, indicating time. 

afterwards adverb; modifying came, showing time. 

almost adverb; modifying invariably, in degree. 

invariably adverb; modifying speaks, showing frequency. 

incorrectly adverb; modifying speaks, showing manner. 

why adverb; modifying do cry, inquiring for the cause. 

perhaps adverb; modifying are, expressing doubt. 

afraid adverb; modifying are, showing/ear. 

no adverb of negation. 

indeed adverb; modifying am, expressing certainty. 

not adverb; modifying afraid, negatively. 

well adverb; used as an introductory word. 

consecutively adverb; modifying taken (understood), showing order. 

never adverb; modifying speak, denoting time. 

hesitatingly adverb; modifying speak, showing manner. 



148 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE PBEPOSITION.— EXEKCISE IN PAUSING. 

Stand from under it. 

I went as far as Third street (to Third street). 

Give the apple to the boy. 

He has just returned from across the bay. 

We stood over on the island for an hour. 

The boys, without hats, ran round and round the house. 

That house on the hill was built in May. 

" Take off thy shoes from off thy feet." 

The noise came from within the house. 

We saw in behind the curtain. 

Contrary to my expectations, he came to the meeting. 

She went aboard the train with her father. 

The ship sailed out beyond the island. 

They live up by our house, on G street. 

We shall keep in company throughout the day. 

A hen with chickens came from under the barn. 

From under preposition; connecting it with STAND. 

as far as preposition; connecting street with went. 

to preposition; connecting boy with give. 

from across preposition; connecting bay with returned. 

over on preposition; connecting island with stood. 

for preposition; connecting hour with stood. 

without preposition; connecting hats with bovs. 

round and round preposition; connecting house with ran. 

on preposition; connecting hill with house. 

in preposition; connecting may with was built. 

from off preposition; connecting feet with take. 

from within preposition; connecting house with came. 

in behind preposition; connecting curtain with saw. 

contrary to preposition; connecting expectations with came. 

to preposition; connecting MEETING with came. 

aboard preposition; connecting train with went. 

with preposition; connecting father with WENT. 

out beyond preposition; connecting island witli sailed. 

up by preposition; connecting house with LIVE. 

on preposition; connecting STREET with house. 

in preposition; connecting company with sham. KEEP. 

throughout preposition; connecting day with shall keep. 

witli preposition; connecting CHICKENS with hen. 

from under preposition; connecting barn with came. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 149 

THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION.— PABSING. 

Oh! how bright and beautiful it is! 

Why! you have forgotten to comb your hair! 

The men as well as the boys took part in the game. 

They walked over to the gate, but did not enter. 

Mercy ! would you kill the child ? 

He was announced first; hence I had to follow. 

I would rather give than receive. 

He would die rather than forfeit his integrity. 

So live that your death may be regretted. 

He died in prison; consequently he was not hanged. 

Pshaw! why did you give him that ? 

I say that that " that " that you wrote is correct. 

Well! you neither laughed nor cried! 

He is whistling; therefore he is happy. 

Hush! she is sleeping! 

Oh! interjection; showing admiration. 

and conjunction; copulative; connects bright with beautiful. 

why! interjection; indicating surprise. 

as well as conjunction; copulative; connects men with boys. 

but conj.; disjunctive; adversative; between walked and did 

enter. 

mercy! interjection; denoting terror. 

hence conj.; copulative; continuative; between two clauses. 

rather — than ... .conj. ; disjunctive; adversative; correlative; between two 
words. 

rather than conj.; disjunctive; adversative; correlative; between two 

clauses. 

so that conj.; copulative; continuative; between live and the fol- 
lowing clause. 

consequently ... .conj.; copul.*; contin. ; between two clauses. 

pshaw! interjection, expressing Indifference. 

that adj. pron. ; demonstr. ; neu. ; third; sing.; obj. ; after did 

GIVE. 

that conj. ; copul. ; contin. ; between say and a clause. 

that pronom. adj.; identifying the noun that (name of a word). 

"that " noun; neu. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to is. 

that rel. pron. ; neu.; third; sing. ; obj.; after wrote., 

well! , . .interjection; denoting appreciation. 

neither— nor . . . .conj.; correl.; disj. ; distrib. ; between laughed and cried. 

therefore conj. ; copul. ; contin. ; between is whistling and is. 

hush! interjection; expressing caution. 



150 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



FORMULA FOR PARSING VERBS. 

1. A Verb v. 

2. Principal Parts , p. p. 

3. Structure 



4. Class 



5. Form 



6. Mood 



9. 



j Regular reg. 

I Irregular irr. 

j Transitive trans. 

1 Intransitive intr. 

Active, or Common act., com. 

Passive pass. 

Progressive prog. 

Emphatic emph. 

Indicative ind. 

Potential pot. 

Subjunctive subj. 

Infinitive inf. 

Imperative imp. 

Participle part. 

Present pres. 

Present Perfect pres. perf. 

Past past. 

Past Perfect past perf. 

Future fut. 

Future Perfect fut. perf. 

First 1st. 

I Second 2nd. 

Third 3rd. 

Number 



7. Tense 



{ 

j Singular sing. 

1 Plural plu. 



10. Agreement with Nominative. 

If the Verb is in the form of an Infinitive or a Participle. 
state whether it represents a Noun or an Adjective. 

FORMULA FOR PARSING ADVERBS. 

1. An Adverb adv. 

( Positive pos. 

2. Degree J Comparative comp. 

( Superlative superl. 

3. Modification. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 151 

FORMULA FOR PAUSING NOUNS. 

A Noun n. 

Common com. 

\ Pr °P er P r0p ' 

Abstract abstr. 

Collective col. 

r Masculine mas. 

3. Gender j feminine fern. 

I Common com. 

I Neuter neu. 

| First 1st. 

4. Person -{ Second 2nd. 

I Third 3rd. 

5. Number I Singular ...., sing. 

( Plural piu. 

r Nominative nom. 

q q^ se j Possessive .... poss. 

i Objective obj. 

L Independent indep. 

7. Relation to Verbs or Prepositions. 

FORMULA FOR PARSING PRONOUNS. 

1. A Pronoun pron. 

r Personal per. 

2. Class J Relative.. rel. 

I Interrogative . . inter. 

I Adjective ^adj. 

3. Gender, same as Nouns. 

4. Person, same as Nouns. 

5. Number, same as Nouns. 

6. Case, same as Nouns. 

7. Relation to Verbs or Prepositions. 

Compound Relative Pronouns must be resolved into 
their elements, as in the Exercise in Parsing Pronouns, on 
page 145. 

Adjective Pronouns must be classified as Distributive, 
Demonstrative, Indefinite, and Numeral. 



2. Pronominal 



152 CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 

FOKMULA FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES. 

1. An Adjective adj. 

Distributive distr. 

Demonstrative dem. 

Indefinite indef. 

i. Numeral num. 

Or Common i descriptive descr. 

{ Limiting lim. 

r Positive pos. 

3. Degree J Comparative comp. 

Ultra-comparative ult.-comp. 

L Superlative superl. 

4. Explanation of modification. 



FORMULA FOR PARSING PREPOSITIONS. 

1. A Preposition prep. 

2. Relation between words or phrases. 



FORMULA FOR PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. A Conjunction conj. 

2. Class j Copulative copul. 

( Disjunctive disj. 

3. Connection between words, phrases, or clauses. 



FORMULA FOR PARSING INTERJECTIONS. 

1. An Interjection interj. 

Surprise, 

Admiration, 

Disgust, 

Fear, 

Rage, 

Excitement, etc. 

"Wlien a word is capable of any other construction than that 
given in an exercise, it should be stated at the end, accompanied 
by the reason for the opinion expressed. 



2. Emotion 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



153 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par.. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Awake, R., 


awoke, 


awoke. 


Crow, R., 


crew, 


crowed. 


Be, or am, 


was, 


been. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Bear, 


bore, 


born. 


Dare, R., 


durst, 


dared. 


tyring forth) bare, 


born. 


{rent are) 






Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


Deal, R., 


dealt, 


dealt. 


{parry) 


bare, 




Dig, R., 


dug, 


dug. 


Beat, | 


beat, ' 


beaten. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Bend, R., 


bent, 


bent. 


Dream, R., 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Bereave, R. 


, bereft, 


bereft. 


Dress, R., 


drest, 


drest. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Bet, R., 


bet, 


bet. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Dwell, R,, 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


(Be)Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed, 


Blend, R., 


blent, 


blent. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Bless, R., 


blest, 


blest. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 




brake, 




Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Build, R., 


built, 


built. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Burn, R., 


burnt, 


burnt. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


(For)Get, 


got, 


got. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 






gotten. 


Can, 


could, 





Gild, R., 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Gird, R, 


girt, 


girtTI 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


(For)Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, 


(Under)Go, 


went, 


gone. 






chid. 


(En) Grave, 


graved, 


graved. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 






graven. 


Cleave, 


cleaved, 


cleaved. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


(adhere) 


clave, 




G row, 


grew, 


grown. 


Cleave, 


clove, 


cloven. 


Hang, R., 


hung, 


hung. 


(split) 


cleft, 


cleft. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 




clave, 




Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Heave, R., 


hove, 


heaved. 


Clothe, R., 


clad, } 


clad. 


Hew, R., 


hewed, 


hewn. 


(Be)Come, 


came, 


come. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 



154 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS— Continued, 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


(Be)Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 






holden. 


Saw, R,, 





sawn. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Kneel, R., 


knelt, 


knelt. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Knit, R., 


knit, 


knit. 


Seethe, R. 


> 


sodden. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Lade, R. , 





laden. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


{load) 






(Be)Set, 


set, 


set. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Shall, 


should, 





Lean, R., 


leant, 


leant. 


Shape, R., 


■ 


shapen. 


Leap, R. , 


leapt, 


leapt. 


Shave, R., 


— 


shaven. 


Learn, R., 


learnt, 


learnt. 


Shear, R., 


shore, 


shorn. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Shine, R., 


shone, 


shone. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


(7'edine) 






Show, R., 





shown. 


Light, R., 


lit, 


lit. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Shrink, 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 




shrunk, 


shrunken 


May, 


might, 


■ ■ 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Sing, 


sang, 


sung. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 




sung, 




Mow, R., 


■ 


mown. 


Sink, 


sank, 


sunk. 


Must, 










sunk, 


sunken. 


Ought, 





■ ■ 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Pass, R. , 





past. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Pen, R., 


pent, 


pent. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 






slid. 


Quit, R., 


quit, 


quit. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Quote, R., 


quoth, 





Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Rap, R., 


rapt, 


rapt. 


Slit, R. ; 


slit, 


slit. 


Read, 


read, 


' read. 


Smell, R., 


smelt, 


smelt. 


Rend, R., 


rent, 


rent. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 






smit. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Sow, 





sown. 


Ring, 


rang, 
rung, 


rung. 


Speak, 


spoke, 
spake, 


spoken. 


(A) Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Rive, R., 





riven. 


Spell, R., 


spelt, 


spelt. 



CLASSIFICATION; OR, PARTS OF SPEECH. 



155 



LIST OF IREEGUIAE VEEBS— Continued. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Swell, R., 





swollen. 


Spill, R., 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 




swum, 




Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 




spat, 




Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Spoil, R., 


spoilt, 


spoilt. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 




tare, 




Spring, 


sprang, 


sprung. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 




sprung, 




Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Thrive, R. 


throve, 


thriven. 


Stave, R., 


stove, 


stove. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Stay, R,, 


staid, 


staid. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stole. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 






trod. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Wake, R., 


woke, 


' 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Wax, R., 





waxen, 




stank, 




Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 






stricken. 


Wet, R., 


wet, 


wet. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Will, 


would, 





Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Strew, R., 


■ 


strown. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Work, R., 


wrought, 


wrought. 




sware, 




Wot, 


wist, 





Sweat, R., 


sweat, 


sweat. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



Those Verbs in the foregoing list marked with the letter R. 
have a Regular as well as an Irregular structure; and in some 
cases the Regular form has a different signification or applica- 
tion from the Irregular. The Regular form of hang signifies 
to put to death by hanging; but the Irregular means simply 
to suspend. The Regular form of dare means to challenge. 
The Regular form of such Verbs as bend and burn are used 
in connection with the human body, and the Irregular for 
inanimate objects, when used as Adjectives. 

In general, the Irregular is preferable to the Regular form 
in the Participle, when used as an Adjective. 



PART III. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 



Selections have been made from the most complicated and difficult speci- 
mens of construction in the English Language, and a sufficient number of 
examples given to serve as models. These should be followed by numerous 
similar Exercises, selected from the writings of such authors as William 
Cullen Bryant, Edgar A. Poe, John G. Whittier, J. G. Holland, and other 
equally well known American authors, as well as the most notable English 
writers. 

After having been sufficiently studied at home, the subject-matter of the 
Parsing Exercise should be written upon the blackboard, and the recitation 
of the class given orally, with criticisms. This is one of the most valuable 
Exercises in procuring a thorough knowledge of English Grammar. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



157 



SENTENCES ON PAGE 42. 

The adj. ; art. ; identifying " train." 

train com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom. ; to " arrives." 

arrives v.; reg. ; intr. ; com.; ind.; pres. ; third; sing.; agreeing 

with "train." 

regularly . '. adv.; modifying " arrives," by denoting manner. 

in . .prep,; connecting " afternoon " with " arrives." 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying "afternoon. " 

afternoon com. n.j neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 

carries v. ; reg. ; trans. ; com. ; ind. ; pres. ; third; sing. ; agreeing 

with "train." 

passengers com. n. ; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after "carries." 

The adj.; art.; identifying " tide." 

tide com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "rises." 

rises v.; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; agreeing 

with "tide." 

very adv. ; modifying "slowly," by showing degree. 

slowly adv.; modifying "rises," denoting manner. 

Every adj.; distributive; limiting "steamer." 

steamer com. n.j neu.; third; sing.; nom.; before " had left." 

had left v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pastperf.; third; sing.; agree- 
ing with "steamer." 

the -adj.; art.; identifying "port." 

port com. n.j neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " had left." 

No adj.; limiting " steamer." 

steamer com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; before "will depart." 

will depart v.; reg.; intr.; com.; ind.; fut.; third; sing. ; agreeing with 

" steamer." 

to-morrow com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after (" on"). 

All adj.; indefinite; limiting " cattle." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " cattle." 

cattle com. n.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to "died." 

in prep.; connecting " Egypt " with "cattle." 

Egypt prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

died v.; reg.; intr.; com.; ind.; past; third; plu.; agreeing with 

"cattle." 

Lightning com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "killed." 

afterwards adv.; modifying " killed," denoting time. 

killed v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; agreeing 

with " lightning." 

cattle com. n.; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after " killed." 

Strange adj.; pos. ; describing "events." 

events com. n. ; neu. ; third; plu. ; nom. ; to " may happen. " 

may happen v.; reg.; intr.; com.; pot.; pres.; third; plu.; same as 

" events." 



15S EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

SENTENCES ON PAGE 76. 

The adj. ; art. ; identifying ' ' boy. " 

little adj. ; pos. ; describing " boy." 

boy com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to " had lost." 

to prep.; connecting " whom " with "gave." 

whom rel. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "to." 

I per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; nom.; to "gave." 

gave v.; p. p., give, gave, given; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; 

first; sing.; agreeing with "I." 

the adj.; art.; identifying "money." 

money com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "gave." 

last adj.; superb; limiting "week." 

week com. n.; neu.; third.; sing.; obj.; after("on") or ("during"). 

had lost. v.; p. p., lose, lost, lost; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pastperf.; 

third; sing.; agreeing with "boy." 

just adv.; modifying " had lost," by denoting point of lime. 

his' per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; poss.; with " mother." 

mother com. n.; fem.; third; sing.; obj.; after " had lost." 

That adj. pron.; demon.; limiting " bottle." 

bottle com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "was cracked." 

into , prep.; connecting "which " with " put." 

which rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " into." 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to " put." 

put v.; p. p., put, put, put; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; sec- 
ond; sing.; agreeing with "you." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " wine." 

wine com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " put." 

yesterday com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after ("on"). 

was cracked v.; p. p., crack, cracked, cracked; reg. ; trans.; pass.; ind.; 

past; third; sing.; agreeing with "bottle." 

in prep. ; connecting " places " with " was cracked." 

two adj.; numeral; cardinal; limiting " places." 

places com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

Australian adj.; describing or identifying " steamer." 

steamer com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "left." 

on prep. ; connecting " which " with " sailed." 

which rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "on." 

sailed v.; reg.; intr. ; com.; ind.; past; third; plu.; same as 

" friends." 

left v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; plu.; same as 

" steamer." 

at prep. ; connecting " two o'clock " with " left. " 

two (hours) adj.; num.; card.; limiting (" hours "). 

o' (for of) P re P-; connecting "o'clock" with "two (hours)." 

(the) clock com, n.j neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "o\" 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 159 

SENTENCES ON PAGE 89. 

Bid v. ; irr. ; trans. ; com. ; imper. ; pres. ; second; sing. ; same 

as " you." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj. ; after "bid." 

(to) come v.; irr.; intr. ; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; after 

"bid." 

here adv.; modifying " come," indicating place. 

You per pron. ; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to "dare." 

dare v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

' ' you. " 

not adv. ; modifying " dare," expressing negation. 

(to) do v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; 

after "dare." 

it per pron.; neu. ; third; sing.; obj.; after "do." 

We per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; nom.; to " need." 

need v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; first; plu.; like "we." 

(to) have v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; 

after " need." 

no adj.; limiting " money." 

money com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " have." 

Did see v.; irr.; trans.; emph.; ind.; past; second; sing.; same as 

" you," interrogative. 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to "did see." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after " did see." 

(to) strike v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; 

after "did see." 

me per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after " strike." 

He per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to " will let." 

will let v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; third; sing.; same as "He." 

not adv.; modifying " will let," expressing negation. 

me per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after " will let." 

(to) go v.; irr.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; after 

"will let." 

Why adv.; modifying "should behold;" interrogative sign. 

should behold . . .v. ; irr.; trans.; com.; pot.; past.; first; plu.; same as "we." 

we per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; nom.; to " should behold." 

him per. pron. ; mas. ; third ; sing. ; obj. ; after ' ' should behold." 

(to) die v.; reg.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after " should behold." 

You per. pron. ; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to " may observe." 

may observe v.; reg.; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

"you." 

the adj. ; art.; identifying " planet." 

planet com. n.; neu.; third; sing. ; obj.; after " may observe." 

(to) move v.; reg.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; after 

" may observe." 



160 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

Those people who make the loudest professions, and most 
persistently criticise others, when closely scrutinized, are often 
found to be sadly deficient in the very qualities they pretend to 
possess, and sometimes inferior to those whom they denounce. 

Those pronom. adj.; dem.; plural; identifying "people." 

people col. n.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to "are found." 

who rel. pron.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to "make" and "crit- 
icise." 
make v.; p. p., make, made, made; irreg. ; trans.; com.; ind.; 

pres.; third; plu.; agreeing with "who." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " professions." 

loudest adj.; superl.; describing "professions." 

professions adstr. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "make." 

and conj. ; copulative; connecting "make " and "criticise." 

most persistently, adv. ; superl.; modifying "criticise;" showing determination. 
criticise v.; p. p., criticise, criticised, criticised; reg. ; trans.; com.; 

ind. ; pres.; third; plu.; agreeing with "who." 

others adj. pron.; indef. ; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after "criticise." 

when conjunctive adv.; modifying "scrutinized," denoting time. 

(they are) scruti- v.; p. p., scrutinize, scrutinized, scrutinized; reg.; trans.; 
nized. pass.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; agreeing with ("they"). 

closely adv.; modifying "scrutinized," showing manner. 

are found v.; p. p., find, found, found; irr. ; trans.; pass.; ind.; pres.; 

third; plu.; agreeing with "people." 
to be v.; p. p., am, was, been; irr.; intr. ; com.; inf.; pres.; after 

"are found." 

sadly adv.; modifying " deficient," showing degree. 

deficient adj. ; pos. ; describing "people." 

in prep.; connecting " qualities " with " deficient." 

the adj. ; art.; identifying " qualities." 

very adj. ; identifying " qualities." 

qualities abstr. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " in." 

they per. pron.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to "pretend." 

pretend v.; p. p., pretend, pretended, pretended; reg.; trans.; 

com.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; agreeing with "they." 
to possess v.; p. p., possess, possessed, possessed; reg.; trans.; com.; 

inf.; pres.; after "pretend." 

sometimes adv.; modifying "are found," denoting time. 

to prep.; connecting " those " with " are found inferior." 

those adj. pron.; demon.; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after "to.", 

whom rel. pron.; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after " denounce." 

denounce ..... .v.; reg.; trans.: com.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; like "they." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 161 

COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

He who, seeing his neighbor in deep distress, and, having 
the power to relieve him, refuses to do so, will surely himself, 
some day, feel the relentless hand of cruel adversity, deserted 
and friendless. 

He per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "will feel." 

who rel. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to " refuses." 

seeing v.; p. p., see, saw, seen; irr. ; trans.; com.; part.; pres. 

his per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; poss.; with "neighbor." 

neighbor com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "seeing." 

in prep. ; connecting "distress " with ' ' neighbor." 

deep adj.; pos.; limiting "distress." 

distress abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

and conj. ; copul. ; connecting the two participial phrases. 

having v.; p. p., have, had, had; irr.; trans.; com.; part.; pres. 

the .... adj.; art.; identifying "power.." 

power abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "having." 

to relieve v.; p. p., relieve, relieved, relieved; reg. ; trans.; com.; inf.; 

pres.; defining "power." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "to relieve." 

refuses v.; p. p., refuse, refused, refused; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; 

pres.; third; sing.; agreeing with "who." 
to do v.; p. p., do, did, done; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; ob- 
ject of "refuses." 

so adv. ; modifying "to do," by expressing identity. 

will feel v.; p. p., feel, felt, felt; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut. ; third; 

sing.; agreeing with "He." 

surely adv.; modifying "will feel," expressing certainty. 

himself per. pron.; reflexive; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; in app. with 

"He." 

some pronom. adj.; indef.; limiting "day." 

day com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after ("on") or (" dur- 
ing")- 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying " hand." 

relentless adj.; positive; describing "hand." 

hand com. n.; figurative; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "will 

feel." 

of prep. ; connecting "adversity " with "hand." 

cruel adj. ; positive; describing " adversity. " 

adversity abstr. n.; personified; fern.; third; sing.; obj.; after "of." 

deserted participial adj.; describing " himself." 

an d conj. ; connecting "deserted " with "friendless." 

friendless -adj.; incomparable; describing " himself." 



162 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

SENTENCES ON PAGE 82. 

He per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to " will swear." 

will swear v.; irr.; intr. com.; ind.; fut.; third; sing.; same as "He." 

most solemnly. . .adv.; superl.; modifying "will swear," showing manner. 

to prep.; connecting "anything " with "will swear." 

whatever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to "anything that." 

anything adj. pron.; indef.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "to." 

that rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " may say." 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to " may say." 

may say v.; irr.; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

"you." 

I per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; nom.; to "shall accept." 

shall accept v.; reg. ; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; first; sing.; same as "I." 

gladly adv.; modifying " shall accept," denoting willinyness. 

whichever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to " k the one that." 

(the) one adj. pron.; indef.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "shall ac- 
cept." 

that rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " to give." 

you per. pronoun; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to- "may be 

pleased." 
may be pleased . . v. ; reg. ; trans. ; pass. ; pot. ; pres. ; second; sing. ; same as 

"you." 

to give v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "may be pleased." 

me per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after ("to"). 

Whoever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to "the person that." 

(the) person com. n.; com.; third; sing.; nom.; to "knew." 

that rel. pron.; com.; third; sing.; nom.; to "gave." 

gave v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

"that." 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; obj.; after ("to"). 

that pronom. adj.; limiting " pen." 

pen com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "gave." 

knew v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

" person." 

that conj.; connecting " knew " with the following clause. 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to " was." 

was v.; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.;' past; third; sing.; same as "it." 

perfectly adv.; modifying " useless," indicating degree. 

useless adj.; pos.; describing " pen." 

Whichever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to "that which." 

that adj. pron.; demon.; neu.; third; sing. ; obj.; after "may 

bring." 

which rel. pron.; neu.; third;£sing.; obj.; after "obtain." 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to " obtain." 

first adv.; modifying "obtain," denoting time. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 163 

obtain ....v. ; reg. ; trans.; com.; ind. ; pres. ; second; sing.; same as 

"you." 

you per. pron. ; com. ; second; sing. ; nom. ; to "may bring." 

may bring v.; irr. ; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

"you." 

to • prep. ; connecting " me " with "may bring." 

me per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; obj.; after " to." 

for prep.; connecting " examination " with " may bring." 

examination com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "for." 

We per. pron.; com.; first; plu. ; nom.; to " shall reward." 

shall reward . . . .v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind,; fut.; first; plu.; same as "we." 

handsomely adv.; modifying " shall reward," showing manner. 

whoever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to " anyone who." 

anyone adj. pron.; com.; third; sing.; obj.; after " shall reward." 

who rel. pron.; com.; third; sing.; nom.; to " gives." 

gives v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

"who." 

us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after (" to"). 

the adj.; art.; defining information." 

desired v.; reg.; trans.; com.; participle; past; used as an adj. to 

describe "information." 

information com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "gives." 

A adj.; art.; limiting "man." 

man com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "will reap." 

will reap v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; third; sing.; same as 

"man." 
most certainly. . .adv.; superl.; modifying "will reap," showing certainty. 

whatsoever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to " that which." 

that adj. pron. ; demon.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "will 

reap." 
which rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "may have 

sown." 
he per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "may have 

sown." 
may have sown.. v.; irr.; trans.; com.; pot.; pres. perf.; third; sing.; same 

as "he." 

I per. pron.; com.; first; sing.; nom.; to "shall approve of." 

shall approve of .v. (with insep. prep.); reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; first; 
sing.; same as "I." 

certainly. adv.; modifying " shall approve of," showing certainty. 

whatever comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to " anything that." 

anything adj. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " shall approve 

of." 

that «... .rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " may do." 

you per. pron.; com.; second; sing.; nom.; to " may do." 

absence abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 



164 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

THE LORD'S PRAYER. 

Our Father, who art in heaven ! Hallowed be thy name. Thy 
kingdom come: thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. 
Give us this day our daily bread: and forgive us our trespasses 
as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not 
into temptation, but deliver us from evil; for thine is the king- 
dom, the power, and the glory forever: Amen. 

Our per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; poss.; with "Father." 

Father prop. n. ; mas.; second; sing.; indep. ; by address. 

who rel. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom. ; to " art." 

art v.; p. p., am, was, been; irr. ; intr. ; com.; ind.; pres.; sec- 
ond; sing.; same as "who." 

in prep. ; connecting "heaven " with " art." 

heaven com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

(Let) v.; (understood.) 

thy per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss.; with "name." 

name com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after (" Let"). 

(to) be hallowed, .v.; p. p., hallow, hallowed, hallowed; reg.; trans.; pass.; 

inf.; pres.; following ("Let "). 
(I pray that) ... .a prayer (understood before " thy"). 

thy per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss.; with " kingdom." 

kingdom. com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to (may) " come." 

(may) come v.; p. p., come, came, come; irr.; intr.; com.; pot.; pres.; 

third; sing.; agreeing with "kingdom." 

(that) thy per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss.; with " will." 

will abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to (may) "be done." 

(may) be (so) done, v.; p. p., do, did, done; irr.; trans.; pass.; pot.; pres.; 
pres.; third; sing.; agreeing with "will." 

on prep.; connecting " earth " with "may be done." 

earth com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "on." 

as conj. ; cop.; (with " so " understood before " done;") con- 
necting two clauses. 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "is (done)." 

is (done) v.; p. p., do, did, done; irr.; trans.; pass.; ind.; pres.; 

third; sing.; agreeing with "it." 

in prep.; connecting " heaven" with "is (done)." 

heaven com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

Give v.; p. p., give, gave, given; irr.; trans.; act.; imp.; pres.; 

second; sing.; agreeing with ("thou"). 

(to) us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after ("to"). 

(during) this . . . .pronom. adj.; identifying " day." 

day com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after (" during "). 

our per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; poss.; with " bread." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 165 

daily adj. ; pos.; modifying " bread." 

bread com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "give." 

and conj.; cop.; connecting "forgive " with "give." 

forgive v.; p. p., forgive, forgave, forgiven; irr. ; trans.; com.; 

imp.; pres.; second; sing.; agreeing with (" thou "). 

us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after "forgive." 

(for) our per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; poss. ; with " trespasses." 

trespasses com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after ("for "). 

as adv. ; connective; modifying " forgive," and connecting two 

clauses, as a conjunction. 

we per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; nom.; to "forgive." 

forgive v.; same as above; ind.; pres.; first; plu.; with " we." 

them per. pron.; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after " forgive." 

that rel. pron.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to " trespass." 

trespass v.; p. p., trespass, trespassed, trespassed; reg. ; intr. ; com.; 

ind.; pres.; third; plu.; with "that." 

against prep.; connecting " us " with " trespass." 

us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after " against." 

and conj. ; cop. ; connecting two sentences. 

lead v.; p. p., lead, led, led; irr.; trans.; com.; imp.; pres.; 

second; sing.; agreeing with ("thou "). 

us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after "lead." 

not adv.; negative; modifying "lead." 

into prep.; connecting " temptation " with " lead." 

temptation abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "into." 

but conj.; disj.; connecting "deliver" with " lead." 

deliver v.; p. p., deliver, delivered, delivered; reg.; trans.; com.; 

imp.; pres.; second; sing.; with ("thou"). 

us per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; obj.; after " deliver." 

from prep.; connecting " evil " with " deliver." 

evil abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " from." 

for conj.; cop.; contin.; connecting the following clause with 

what precedes it. 

thine per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss.; with "kingdom, "etc. 

is v.; p. p., am, was, been; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; 

third; sing.; same as "kingdom." 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying " kingdom." 

kingdom com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "is." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " power." 

power com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to (" is "). 

and conj.; cop. ; connecting "kingdom," " power,"and "glory." 

the adj.; art.; identifying "glory." 

glory com. n. ; neu. ; third. ; sing. ; nom. ; to (" is # "). 

forever adv.; limiting " is," expressing time. 

Amen adv. of affirmation, confirming the prayer. 



166 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

RETURN OF REFUGEES.— Patrick Henry. 

Yes, sir, they will see her great in arts and in arms; her 
golden harvests waving over fields of immeasurable extent, her 
commerce penetrating the most distant seas, and her cannon 
silencing the vain boasts of those who now proudly affect to 
rule the waves. 

Yes adv. ; affirmative; connective. 

sir com. n.j mas.; third; sing.; indep. ; by address. 

they per. pron.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to " will see." 

will see v.; irr. ; trans.; com.; ind.; flit.; third; plu. ; same as "they." 

her per. pron.; fern.; third; sing.; obj.; after " will see." 

great adj.; pos.; describing "her" (meaning America). 

arts com. n.; neu. ; third; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

arms com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

her per. pron.; fern.; third; sing.; poss. ; with "harvests." 

golden adj.; pos.; describing "harvests." 

harvests com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "will see." 

waving v.; reg. ; intr. ; com.; part.; pres.; used as adj., describing 

" harvests." 

over prep. ; connecting " fields " with " waving." 

fields com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "over." 

immeasurable ...adj.; incomparable; limiting " extent." 

extent com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after " of." 

commerce com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "will see." 

penetrating v. ; reg. ; trans. ; com. ; part. ; pres. ; modifying " commerce." 

most distant adj.; super!.; limiting "seas." 

seas com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "penetrating." 

and conj.; cop.; connecting "harvests," "commerce, "and "can- 
non." 

her per. pron. ; fern. ; third; sing. ; poss. ; with "cannon." 

cannon com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " will see." 

silencing v.; reg.; trans.; com.; part; pres.; modifying "cannon." 

vain adj. ; incomparable; describing " boasts." 

boasts com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "silencing." 

those adj. pron.; dem.; com.; third; plu.; obj.; after "of." 

who rel. pron. ; com. ; third; plu. ; nom. ; to " affect." 

now adv. ; modifying " affect," denoting time. 

proudly adv.; modifying " affect," indicating manner. 

affect v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; same as 

" who." 

to rule v.; reg.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; used as a noun, obj.; 

after "affect," 
waves com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "to rule." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 167 

JULIUS CAESAR.— Act. L, Scene II. 

Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear: 
And, since you know you cannot see yourself 
So well as by reflection, I, your glass, 
Will modestly discover to yourself 
That of yourself which you yet know not of. 

Therefore conj. ; cormecting the following clause with the preceding. 

good adj. pos.; describing " Brutus." 

Brutus prop. n. ; mas. ; second; sing. ; independent by address. 

be prepared v.; reg. ; trans.; pass.; inrper. ; pres. ; second; sing. 

to hear v. ; irr. ; trans. ; com. ; inf. ; pres. ; after t ' be prepared. " 

and conj. ; cop. ; connecting the two clauses. 

since conj. ; cop. ; connecting the premises with the conclusion. 

you per. pron. ; mas.; second; sing.; nom. ; to " know." 

know v. ; irr. ; trans. ; com. ; ind. ; pres. ; second; sing. ; like "you." 

you . . .per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to "can see." 

can see v. ; irr. ; trans. ; com. ; pot. ; pres. ; second; sing. ; like "you. " 

not adv. of negation; modifying " can see." 

yourself per. pron. ; reflexive; mas.; second; sing.; obj.; after "can 

see." 

so adv.; modifying "well," showing degree. 

well , . .adv.; modifying " can see," expressing quality. 

as conj. ; cop. ; connecting " can see " with the same verb un- 
derstood, 
by prep. ; connecting " reflection " with "can see " under- 
stood. 

reflection com. n.; neu.; third: sing.; obj.; after the prep, "by." 

I per. pron. ; mas.; first; sing.; nom.; to "will discover." 

your per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss. ; with "glass." 

glass com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; in app. with "I." 

will discover v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; first; sing.; like "I." 

modestly adv.; modifying " will discover." 

to prep. ; connecting "yourself " with " will discover." 

yourself per. pron. ; reflexive; mas.; second; sing.; obj.; after "to." 

that adj. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " will discover." 

of prep.; connecting " yourself" with "know." 

yourself per/pron.; reflex.; mas.; second; sing.; obj.; after "of." 

which rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "know (of)." 

you . . per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to "know." 

yet adv.; modifying " know." 

know v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; second; sing.; like "you." 

not adv. ; modifying "know." 

of inseparable prep, with " know." 



168 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JULIUS CtESAR.— Act I., Scene II. 

I can not tell what you and other men 
Think of this life; but, for my single self, 
I had as lief not be as live to be 
In awe of such a thing as I myself. 

I per. pron. ; mas. ; first; sing. ; nom. ; to " can tell. " 

can tell v.; irr.; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; first; sing.; like "I." 

not adv. of negation; modifying " can tell." 

what comp. rel. pron.; equivalent to " that which", .that — adj. 

pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "can tell".. 

which — rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after 

"think." 

you per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to "think." 

and conj. ; cop. ; connecting " men " with " you. ' 

other pronom. adj.; limiting " men." 

men com. n.; mas.; third; plu.; nom.; to "think." 

think v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; second; plu.; like "you" 

and " men." 

of • prep. ; connecting " life " with " think." 

this pronom. adj. ; limiting " life." 

life com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " of." 

but conj.; disj.; connecting the two clauses. 

for .prep. ; connecting "myself " with "speaking " understood. 

myself reflex, per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after " for," 

single adj.; limiting " self." 

I per. pron.; first; sing.; nom.; to " had." 

had v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; first; sing.; like " I." 

as adv.; modifying " lief," showing degree. 

lief adv. ; modifying ' ' had " (equivalent to ' ' willingly"). 

not adv. of negation; modifying " (to) be." 

(to) be v.; irr.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "had." 

as conj. ; cop. ; connecting the two clauses. 

(to) live v.; reg. ; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after ("have"). 

to be v.; irr.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "live." 

awe com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

such pronom. adj.; indef. ; limiting " thing." 

a adj . ; art. ; limiting ' ' thing. " 

tiling com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj. ; after " of." 

as conjunctive adv. ; modifying "am," and connecting it with 

" such." 

I '. per. pron. ; mas. ; first; sing. ; nom. ; to ( " am "). 

myself reflex, per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom.; in app. with "I." 

(am) v. ; irr. ; intr. ; com. ; ind. ; pres. ; first; sing. ; like " I. " 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



169 



JULIUS C^SAR— Act. I., Scene II. 

For, once, upon a raw and gusty day, 
The troubled' Tiber chafing with her shores, 
Caesar said to me, "Dar'st thou, Cassius, now 
Leap in with me into this angry flood, 
And swim to yonder point ? " 

For conj.; contin.; connecting following clause with preceding 

sentence. 

once adv.; limiting " said," denoting time. 

upon prep. ; connecting " day " with " said." 

raw, gusty adjectives; pos.; describing " day." 

and conj.; cop.; connecting " raw " and "gusty." 

day com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "upon." 

the adj.; art.; identifying "Tiber." 

troubled participial adj.; describing " Tiber." 

Tiber prop. n. ; fern.; third; sing.; independent before "chafing.' 

charing v.; reg. ; intr. ; com.; participle; present. 

with prep; connecting "shores " with " charing." 

her per. pron.; fem.; third; sing.; poss.; with " shores." 

shores com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "with." 

Caesar prop. n. ; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to " said." 

said v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

" Csesar." 

to prep-; connecting " me " with " said." 

me per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after "to." 

Dar'st v.; reg.; trans.; interrog.; ind.; pres.; second; same as 

"thou." 

thou per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to "Dar'st." 

Cassius prop. n. ; mas.; second; sing.; independent by address. 

now . . . adv.; modifying " Dar'st," denoting time. 

(to) leap v.; reg.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "Dar'st." 

in inseparable prep.; used with the verb " leap." 

with prep. ; connecting " me " with "leap in." 

me per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after " with." 

into pi'ep.; connecting " flood " with "leap in." 

this pronom. adj.; demonstrative; limiting "flood." 

angry . .adj.; describing " flood." 

flood com. n.; neu.; third.; sing.; obj.; after "into." 

and conj.; cop.; connnecting "leap" with "swim." 

(to) swim v.; irr.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "Dar'st." 

to prep.; connecting " point " with " swim." 

yonder adj.; limiting " point." 

point com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " to." 



170 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JULIUS C^SAR.— Act I., Scene II. 

Upon the word, 
Accoutered as I was, I plunged in, 
And bade him follow; so, indeed, be did. 
Tbe torrent roar'd; and we did buffet it 
With lusty sinews; throwing it aside 
And stemming it with hearts of controversy. 

Upon prep.; connecting " word " with " plunged." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " word." 

word com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "upon." 

accoutered v.; reg.; trans.; com.; participle.; past.; used as adj. 

as conjunctive adv.; modifying " was (accoutered)." 

I per; pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom.; to "was (accoutered)." 

was (accoutered). v.; reg.; trans.; pass.; ind.; past; first; sing.; same as "I." 

I per. pron.; mas. ; first; sing.; nom.; to " plunged " 

plunged v.; reg.; intr.; com.; ind.; past; first; sing.; same as "I." 

in inseparable prep.; with " plunged." 

and conj. ; cop.; connecting " plunged/' with " bade." 

bade v.; irr. ; trans.; com.; ind.; past; first; sing.; same as "I." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "bade." 

(to) follow v.; reg.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "bade." 

so adv.; modifying " did," indicating manner. 

indeed adv.; verifying " did," denoting certainty. 

he per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "did." 

did (or, acted) . . .v. ; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as "he." 

torrent com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to " roar'd." 

roar'd v.; reg.; intr.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

"torrent." 

and conj.; cop.; connecting two clauses. 

we per. pron.; mas.; first; phi.; nom.; to "did buffet." 

did buffet v.; reg.; trans.; emph.; first; plu.; same as "we." 

it per. pr-on.; neu.; third; sing.; obj. ; after " did buffet." 

throwing v.; irr.; trans.; com.; part.; pres. 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " throwing." 

aside adv.; modifying " throwing," denoting place. 

and conj.; cop. ; connecting " throwing" and "stemming." 

stemming v. ; reg. ; trans. ; com. ; part. ; pres. 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " stemming." 

with prep. ; connecting " hearts " with "throwing " and " stem- 
ming." 

hearts com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "with." 

of prep.; connecting "controversy " with "hearts." 

controversy com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "of." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 171 

JULIUS OESAB.— Act L, Scene II. 

But ere we could arrive the point proposed, 
Caesar cried, "Help me, Cassius, or I sink." 

But conj.; disj.; connecting this sentence with the preceding. 

ere ". . . .prep. (See note below.) 

we per. pron; mas.; first; plu.; nom.; to " could arrive." 

could arrive v.; reg. ; trans.; com.; pot.; past; first; plu.; like "we." 

the adj.; art.; defining " point."' 

point com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " could arrive." 

proposed participial adj. ; specifying " point." 

Caesar prop, n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "cried." 

cried v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; like " Cae- 
sar." 

Help v.; reg.; trans.; com.; imper. ; pres.; second; sing.; like 

("thou"). 

(thou) per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to "Help." 

me per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after " Help." 

Cassius prop, n.; mas.; second; sing.; independent by address. 

or conj. ; disj. ; connecting the two clauses. 

I per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom.; to " (shall) sink." 

(shall) sink v.; irr. ; intr. ; com.; ind.; fut. ; first; sing.; like "I." 

The Preposition ere has for its Object the Clause, " we could 
arrive the point proposed," and is equivalent to " ere our ar- 
rival/' in which arrival is the Object. It connects this Object 
with the Verb cried. Could arrive is synonymous with could 
reach, and is therefore Transitive in this Sentence. The Verb 
cried is used in the same sense as said, and is, therefore, in this 
case, Transitive. It has for its Object the following Clause. 
Sink is evidently used in the future, with the Auxiliar}^ shall 
elided, for the purpose of preserving the beautiful rhythm 
which is so characteristic of all Shakespeare's writings. The 
Conjunction But, while it separates the two ideas that are in 
contrast, connects the parts grammatically. The Verb could 
arrive can also be disposed of as Intransitive, by supplying 
the Preposition at after it. Should this be given as the prefer- 
able construction, make point the Object of the Preposition in- 
stead of the Verb. When several different methods of construc- 
tion can be shown, the preferable one may be given, with the 
reason for the preference. Simplicity should always be pre- 
served, if possible. 



172 EXERCISES IN" PARSING. 

JULIUS C^SAR.— Act I., Scene II. 

I, as iEneas, our great ancestor, 
Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder 
The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber 
Did I the tired Caesar. 

I per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom. (superfluous); to "did 

bear." 

as conj. ; used with " so," to connect the two clauses. 

iEneas prop. n. ; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "did bear." 

our per. pron.; mas.; first; plu.; poss.; with " ancestor." 

great , adj.; describing " ancestor." 

ancestor com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; in app. with "iEneas." 

did bear v.; irr. ; trans.; emph.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

"IEneas." 

from prep. ; connecting "flames " with " did bear." 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying "flames. " 

flames com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "from." 

of prep.; connecting " Troy" with " flames." 

Troy prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "of." 

upon prep.; connecting " shoulder " with "did bear." 

his per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; poss.; with "shoulder." 

shoulder com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "upon." 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying "Anchises." 

old adj.; describing " Anchises." 

Anchises prop, n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after " did bear." 

so conj. ; used with " as " to connect the two clauses. 

from prep.; connecting " waves " with " did (bear)." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " waves." 

waves com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " from." 

of prep.; connecting " Tiber " with "waves." 

Tiber prop, n.; fem. ; third sing.; obj.; after " of." 

I per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom.; to " did (bear)." 

did (bear) v.; irr.; trans.; emph.; ind.; past; first; sing.; like "I." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " Caesar." 

tired adj.; describing "Caesar." 

Caesar prop, n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "did (bear)." 

A description of the celebrated siege of Troy by the Gre- 
cians, and the final destruction of the city by a stratagem, can 
be found in any English translation of Virgil's "iEneid," iEneas 
carried his father "Anchises "upon his shoulders to the summit 
of Mount Ida; but his wife, for whom he returned to search, 
could nowhere be found. She perished during the flight. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 173 

JULIUS C^SAR.— Act I., Scene II. 
* ■& * * And this man 
Is now become a god; and Cassius is 
A wretched creature, and must bend his body, 
If Csesar carelessly but nod on him. 

And conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

this pronom. adj.; dem. ; limiting " man." 

man com. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to " is become." 

is become v.; irr. ;intr. ; pass.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as "man." 

now adv.; modifying " is become," showing time. 

god . .com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; after "is become." 

and conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

Cassius prop, n.; mas.; 'third; sing.; nom.; to "is" and "must 

bend. " 
is v. ; irr. ; intr. ; com. ; ind. ; pres. ; third; sing. ; same as 

"Cassius." 

wretched adj.; describing " creature." 

creature com. n. ; mas.; third; sing.; nom ; after "is." 

and conj. ; connecting " must bend " with "is." 

must bend v.; reg. ; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

" Cassius." 

his per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; poss. ; with "body." 

body com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing.; obj.; after "must bend." 

if conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

Csesar prop. n. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to "nod." 

carelessly adv.; modifying " nod," expressing manner. 

but adv.; modifying " nod," expressing degree. 

nod v. ; reg. ; intr. ; com. ; subj. ; pres. ; third; sing. ; same as 

" Caesar." 

on prep. ; connecting "him " with "nod." 

him per. pron. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after "on." 

The Verb is become is the equivalent of is, and, as shown in 
sec. 49, p. 122, must be followed by the same Case that pre- 
ceded it; for example, " This boy will become a man," has 
the same signification as " This boy will be a man." And to 
illustrate how the sentence may be transposed, it might be said, 
after the lapse of years, " This man 'was once a boy." Man 
and boy refer to the same individual, who simply undergoes 
the change of state called development, which is expressed by 
become. But is equivalent to only, and is for this reason 
classed as an Adverb. 



174 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JULIUS CiESAK.— Act I., Scene II. 
* * * * I did hear him groan; 
Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the Romans 
Mark him, and write his speeches in their books, 
"Alas! " it cried, " give me some drink, Titinius," 
As a sick girl. 

I per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; nom. ; to " did hear." 

did hear v.; irr. ; trans.; emph.; ind.; past; first; sing.; same as "I." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after " did hear."' 

(to) groan v.; reg. ; intr. ; com.; inf.; pres.; after "did hear." 

Ay adv. ; confirming the statement. 

and conj. ; connecting the two clauses. 

that pron. adj. ; imiting "tongue." 

tongue com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "cried." 

of prep. ; used by poetic license with the possessive "his." 

his per. pron. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; poss. ; with' " tongue." 

that rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "bade." 

bade v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as 

"that." 

the adj. ; art. ; identifying " Romans." 

Romans prop. n. ; mas.; third; plu. ; obj.; after "bade." 

(to) mark v.; reg.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; after " bade." 

him per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "mark." 

and conj, ; cop. ; connecting "mark " and " write." 

(to) write v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; after " bade." 

his per. proD.; mas.; third; sing.; poss.; with " speeches." 

speeches com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " write." 

in prep. ; connecting ' ' books " with ' ' write. " 

their per. pron.; com.; third; plu.; poss.; with " books." 

books com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " in." 

Alas interjection. 

it per. pron. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom. ; to "cried." 

cried v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as "it." 

Give v.; irr.; trans.; com.; imper. ; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

("thou"). 

me per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after (" to "). 

some pronom. adj.; limiting " drink." 

drink com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "give." 

Titinius prop, n.; mas.; second; sing.; indep. by address. 

as conjunctive adv. ; connecting the following clause. 

a adj.; art.; indef.; limiting "girl." 

sick adj.; pos.; describing "girl." 

girl coin, n.; fern.; third; sing.; nom. ; to "cries" understood. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 175 

JULIUS CiESAK.— Act I., Scene II. 

Men, at some time, are masters of their fates; 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 

" Brutus " and " Caesar;' 5 what should be in that " Caesar ? " 

Why should that name be sounded more than yours ? 

Men com. u. ; mas.; third; plu. ; nom.; to " are." 

at ... prep. ; connecting ' ' time " with " are." 

some pronom. adj.; limiting "time." 

time com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "at." 

are v.; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; like " men." 

masters com. n.; mas.; third; plu.; nom.; after "are." 

The adj.; art.; identifying "fault." 

fault com. n.; neu.; third; sing. ; nom.; to " is." 

dear adj.; describing " Brutus." 

Brutus P r0 P- n -; nias.; second; sing.; indep. by address. 

x s v. ; irr. ; intr. ; com. ; ind. ; pres. ; third; sing. ; like " fault." 

not adv.; modifying " is," expressing negation. 

in P re P-; connecting " stars " with " is." 

our per. pron. ; mas.; first; plu.; poss. ; with " stars." 

stars com. n. ; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

But conj.; connecting "is " with (" is ") understood. 

in prep.; connecting "ourselves " with ("is ") understood. 

ourselves per. pron.; reflexive; mas.; first; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

that conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

we per. pron.; mas.; first; plu.; nom.; to " are." 

are v.; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; first; plu.; like "we." 

underlings com. n.; mas.; first; plu.; nom.; after "are." 

" Brutus " prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; independent. 

"Caesar" prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; independent. 

what interrog. pron.; used with " quality " understood. 

should be v.; irr.; intr.; com.; pot.; past; third; sing.; like ("qual- 
ity"). 

in prep. ; connecting "Caesar " with " should be." 

that pronom. adj. ; limiting "Csesar." 

"Caesar" prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 

Why adv.; modifying "should be sounded," interrogatively. 

that pronom. adj.; limiting "name." 

name com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing.; nom. ; to "should be sounded." 

should be sounded v.; reg.; trans.; pass.; pot.; past; third; sing.; like "name." 

Brutus and Caesar are here used as names merely, and not 
men; they are, therefore, neuter. 



176 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JULIUS C^SAR.— Act I., Scene II. 

Write them together — yours is as fair a name; 
Sound them — it doth become the mouth as well; 
Weigh them — it is as heavy; conjure with them — 
" Brutus" will start a spirit as soon as " Caesar. " 

Write v.; irr. ; trans.; com.; imper. ; pres.; second; sing. 

them per. pron.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " write." 

together adv.; modifying " write," denoting place. 

yours per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; poss.; with ("name"). 

is v.; irr.; intr. ; com.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

" name." 

as adv.; modifying " fair," expressing degree. 

fair adj. ; describing "name." 

name com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; after "is." 

Sound v.; reg. ; trans.; com.; imper.; pres.; second; sing. 

them per. pron.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " Sound." 

it per. pron.. neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "doth become." 

doth become ....v.; irr.; trans.; emph.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

"it." 

mouth com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " doth become." 

as adv.; modifying " well," expressing degree. 

well adv. ; modifying " doth become," denoting manner. 

Weigh v.; reg.; trans.; com.; imper.; pres.; second; sing.; same 

(" thou"). 

them per. pron.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " weigh." 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "is." 

is v.; irr.; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as "it." 

as adv.; modifying "heavy," expressing degree. 

heavy adj.; describing ("name "). 

conjure v.; reg.; intr.; com.; imper.; pres.; second; sing. 

with prep. ; connecting " them " with " conjure." 

them per. pron.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " with." 

" Brutus " prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "will start." 

will start v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; fut.; third; sing.; same as 

' ' Brutus. " 

a adj. ; art. ; indef. ; limiting " spirit. " 

spirit com. n.; com.; third; sing.; obj.; after " will start. " 

as soon as adv.; equivalent to "when," modifying " will start." 

" Caesar" prop, n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to " does." 

As soon as may be otherwise disposed of: Soon, an Adverb, 
modifying will start; the preceding as, an Adverb, modifying 
soon; and the following as, a Conjunctive Adverb. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 177 

JULIUS C2ESAR,— Act I., Scene II. 

Now, in the names of all the gods at once, 
Upon what meat doth this our Cicsar feed, 
That he is grown so great ? Age, thou art shamed! 
Koine, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods! 



Now adv. ; introducing the sentence. 

in ... . prep. ; connecting " names " with the principal clause. 

the <^dj.; art.; identifying " names." 

names com. n.; neu.; third; pin.; ohj.; after " in.'' 

of P^ep.j connecting " gods " with " names." 

all pronom. adj.. indef. ; limiting "gods." 

the .adj.; art.; identifying " gods." 

gods com. n. ; mas.; third; plu. ; obj.; after " of." 

at once adv. ; modifying some verb (as, " mentioned ") elided. 

Upon prep.; connecting " meat " with " doth feed." 

what interrog. pron. ; used as an adj. ; with " meat." 

meat com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "Upon." 

doth feed v.; irr. ; intr. ; emph.; ind. ; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

" Caesar." 

this pronom. adj. ; dem. ; limiting " Ca?sar." 

our per. pron.; mas.; first; plu.; poss. ; with "Ca?sar." 

Ca j sar prop, n.; mas.; third; sing.; nom.; to "doth. feed." 

That conj.; connecting the two clauses. 

he per. pron. ; mas. ; third; sing. ; nom. ; to "is grown. " 

is grown v. ; irr. ; intr. ; pass. ; ind. ; pres. ; third; sing. ; same as " he. " 

so adv. ; modifying " great," expressing degree. 

great adj. ; describing " Csesar." 

Age com. n. ; personified; mas. ; second; sing.; independent by 

address. 

thou per. pron.; mas.; second; sing.; nom.; to " art shamed." 

art shamed v.; reg. ; trans.; pass.; ind.; pres.; second; sing.; same as 

"thou." 

Rome prop, n.; fern.; second; sing.; independent by address. 

thou per. pron.; fern.; second; sing.; nom.; to " hast lost." 

hast lost v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres. perf. ; second; sing.; same 

as " thou." 

breed com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "hast lost." 

of . prep. ; connecting " bloods " with " breed. " 

noble adj. ; pos. ; describing "bloods." 

bloods com. n.; mas.; third; plu. ; obj.; after "of." 

Rome, being followed by the Pronoun her, is Feminine; 
Age, personified, is Masculine, and bloods, used for men, is 
Masculine: gods is also Masculine. 



178 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

JULIUS C^SAR.— Act L, Scene II. 

When went there by an age, since the great flood, 
But it was famed with more than with one man ? 
When could they say, till now, that talked of Rome, 
That her wide walks encompassed but one man ? 

When adv. ; modifying " went." 

went V.; irr.; intr. ; com.; ind.; past; third; sing. ; same as "age." 

there adv. ; modifying " went," idiomatic. 

by inseparable prep. ; with " went." 

an adj. ; art. ; indef.; limiting " age." 

age com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom. ; to "went." 

since prep.; connecting "flood " with " went by." 

the adj.; art.; identifying " flood." 

great adj.; pos. ; describing "flood." 

flood com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "since." 

But .prep. ; connecting the following clause with " went." 

it per. pron. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "was famed." 

was famed v.; reg. ; intr.; pass.; ind.; past; third; sing.; same as "it." 

with prep.; connecting " men " understood with " was famed." 

more adj.; comparative; limiting ("men "). 

than conj. ; connecting the two clauses. 

with ..prep. ; connecting "man " with " was famed." 

one adj.; numeral; limiting " man." 

man com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "with." 

When adv. ; introducing the cpiestion, denoting time. 

could say v.; irr.; trans.; com.; pot.; past; third; plu.; same as 

"they." 

they per. pron.; com.; third; plu.; nom.; to " could say." 

till prep. ; connecting "now/' with " could say." 

now adv.; used as a noun; obj.; after " till." 

that conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

talked of ..."... .participial adj.; combined with an insep. prep. 

Rome prop, n.; fern.; third; sing.; nom.; to "encompassed." 

her per. pron.; fern. ; third; sing.; poss.; with " walks." 

wide .adj.; pos.; describing " walks." 

walks com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; nom.; to " encompassed." 

encompassed ... .v.; reg.; trans.; com.; ind.; past; third; plu.; same as 

" walks." 

but adv.; modifying the adj. "one," denoting limit. 

one adj.; num.; limiting "man." 

man com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "encompassed." 

But, used for except, is a Preposition; but, used for only, 
is an Adverb. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 179 

AS YOU LIKE IT.— Act II., Scene I. 

Now, my co-mates, and brothers in exile, 
Hath not old custom made this life more sweet 
Than that of painted pomp ? Are not these woods 
More free from peril than the envious court ? 

Now adv. ; introducing the sentence. 

my per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; poss.; with " co-mates " and 

"brothers." 

co-mates com. n.; mas.; second; plu.; indep. by address. 

and conj. ; cop. ; connecting "co-mates " and " brothers." 

brothers com. n.; mas.; second; plu.; indep. by address. 

in prep. ; connecting "exile " with " brothers." 

exile com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 

Hath made v.; irr.; trans.; com.; interrog. ; ind.; pres. perf. ; third; 

sing. ; same as ' ' custom. " 

not adv.; modifying "hath made," denoting assertion. 

old .adj.; describing "custom." 

custom com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "hath made." 

this pronom. adj.; dem.; limiting "life." 

life com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "hath made." 

more sweet adj.; compar. ; describing " life." 

than conj.; connecting two clauses. 

that adj. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to ("is "). 

of prep.; connecting "pomp" with "that." 

painted participial adj.; describing " pomp." 

pomp com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "of." 

Are v.; irr.; intr.; com.; interrog.; ind.; pres.; third; plu.; 

like "woods." 

not adv.; modifying "are," denoting assertion. 

these pronom. adj. ; limiting " woods." 

woods com. p.; neu.; third; plu.; nom.; to " are." 

more free adj.; comp.; describing "woods." 

from prep.; connecting " peril " with "more free." 

peril com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; obj. ; after " from. " 

than conj. ; connecting two clauses. 

envious adj.; describing "court." 

court .com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to ("is"). 

The Adjectives more sweet and more free might have 
been compared by the addition of er; but as this would destroy 
the rhythm, the long form is used. The Comparative more 
sweet has the Verb to be understood before it. This can be 
more clearly shown by substituting caused for made. 



180 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

AS YOU LIKE IT.— Act II., Scene I. 

Sweet are the uses of adversity; 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in its head; 

And this our life, exempt from public haunts, 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 

Sermons in stones, and good in everything. 

Sweet adj.; describing "uses." 

are v.; irr. ; intr.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; plural; same as 

" uses." 

the adj.; an;.; identifying " uses." 

uses com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; nom.; to "are." 

of prep.; connecting " adversity " with "uses." 

adversity com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "of." 

which rel. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "wears." 

like prep.; connecting "toad " with "which." 

toad com. n.; mas.; third; sing.; obj.; after "like." 

ugly adj.; describing "toad." 

venomous adj.; describing " toad." 

and conj. ; cop. ; connecting " ugly " with "venomous." 

wears v.; irr.; trans.; com.; ind.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

"which." 

yet adv.; modifying " wears." 

precious adj.; pos.; describing "jewel." 

jewel com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "wears." 

its per. pron. ; neu. ; third; sing. ; poss. ; with " head." 

head com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " in." 

this pronom. adj.; limiting "life." 

our per. pron.; mas.; first; plu.; poss.; with "life." 

life com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to "finds." 

exempt adj.; describing " life." 

from .prep.; connecting " haunts " with "life." 

public adj.; pos.; describing " haunts." 

haunts com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "from." 

finds ....: v.; irr:; trans.; com.; ind.; pres. ; third; sing.; same as 

"life." 

tongues com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "finds." 

trees com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after " in." 

books com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "finds." 

running participial adj. ; describing " brooks." 

brooks com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "in." 

good abstr. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after " finds." 

everything com. n. ; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 181 

KING HENRY VIII.— Act IV., Scene II. 

Grif. Noble madam, 

Men's evil manners live in brass; their virtues 
"We write in water. May it please your highness 
To- hear me speak his good now? 

Katharine. Yes, good Griffith; 

I were malicious else. 

Noble adj.; describing "madam." 

madam com. n. ; fern.; second; sing.; indep. by address. 

men's com. n.; mas.; third; plu.; poss.; with " manners. " 

evil adj.; describing " manners." 

manners com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; noil). ; to "live." 

live v.; reg. ; intr. ; com.; ind.j pres. ; third; plu.; same as 

" manners." 

in prep. ; connecting "brass " with "live." 

brass com. n.; lieu.; third; sing.; obj.; after "in." 

their per. pron. ; mas.; third; plu., poss.; with "virtues." 

virtues com. n.; neu.; third; plu.; obj.; after "write." 

we per. pron.; com.; first; plu.; nom.; to "write." 

write v.; irr. ; trans.; com.; ind.; first; plu.; same as " we." 

in prep. ; connecting " water " with " write." 

water com. n. ; neu. ; third; sing.; obj. ; after " in." 

may please v.; reg.; trans.; com.; pot.; pres.; third; sing.; same as 

"it." 

it per. pron.; neu.; third; sing.; nom.; to " may please." 

your per. pron.; fern.; second; sing.; poss.; with " highness." 

highness com. n.; fern.; second; sing.; obj.; after "may please." 

to hear v.; irr.; trans.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "may please." 

me per. pron.; mas.; first; sing.; obj.; after " to hear." 

(to) speak v.; irr.; intr.; com.; inf.; pres.; after "to hear." 

of prep. ; connecting " good " with " to speak. " 

his per. pron.; mas.; third; sing.; poss.; with "good." 

good com. n.; neu.; third; sing.; obj.; after ("of "). 

now adv.; modifying " to hear." 

yes adv.; confirming the subsequent answer. 

good adj.; describing " Griffith." 

Griffith prop, n.; mas.; second; sing.; indep. by address. 

I per. pron.; fern.; first; sing.; nom.; to " were." 

were v.; irr.; intr.; com.; subjunctive; past; first; sing.; same 

as "I." 

malicious adj. ; describing ("person "), used as an attribute. 

else adv.; modifying " were;" used for " otherwise." 



182 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



YEBBS IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. 

Omit the parentheses. 
In order to study the following Exercise in the most system- 
atic manner, it is necessary for each pupil to prepare some 
Transitive Verb, by unfolding it in all its Moods and Tenses, in 
the Common or Active, Passive, and Progressive Forms. 
This may be done from the examples on pages 54, 55, and 56; 
but it should be more complete, as on page 189, by having 
shall used with will, can and must with may, and eould, 
would, and should with might. By doing this, and at the 
same time requiring copious Exercises, resembling this and the 
few following pages, each pupil will soon become, not only ex- 
pert in identifying each expression, but also interested in the 
greatest degree. In this collection the Sentences are all 
Declarative. The Participles and Infinitives, which merely 
assume or name conditions, without assertion, do not require 
Sentences in full. 



Verbs. 

(She) could search 

(I) shall be speaking 

To have been waiting 

(You) must come 

(I) did call (him) 

(They) will be forgiven 

(We -found it) broken 

(You) do read (too loud) 

(He) will have been sailing 

(It) might have been saved 

(She) does not expect (it) 

(They) could have been traveling 

(We) shall have counted (it) 

To have defended (him) 

Be examining (that exercise) 
(You) might be called (away) 

(She) will be singing 

(She) will improve (or progress) . . , 
(It) would (surely) be known. 
(Every word) shall be written. . . . 
(They) might have departed .... 

To be destroyed 

(You) should have remembered (it) 

(It) will have been seen 

(I) would have been riding 

(It) can (not) have been bleeding, 

(We) are endeavoring (to go) 

(She) could have read (it) 



Parts. 


Class. 


Form. 


Mood. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


inf. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


emph. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


part. 


irr. 


intr. 


emph. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


emph. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


inf. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


imp. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


inf. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 



Tense. 



past. 

future. 

perfect. 

present. 

past. 

future. 

past. 

present. 

fut. perf. 

past perf. 

present. 

past perf. 

fut. perl. 

perfect. 

present. 

past. 

future. 

future. 

past. 

future. 

past perf. 

present. 

past perf. 

fut. perf. 

past perf. 

pres. perf. 

present. 

past perf. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



183 



YEEBS IN DECLABATIVE SENTENCES. 

Omit the parentheses. 



Verbs. 

Being (busy) 

(The books) should have been found 

(It) has been snowing 

(You) would be encouraging (fraud) 

(We) had been advised 

(It) could have been written 

Having been warned 

(They) would have forgotten it 

Come (back) 

(You) must have burnt (it) 

(I) shall have been working 

(It) might have been refined 

Being teaching, (I can not go) 

(I) might reply (to him) 

(He) should have been reciting (or 

talking) 

(These lessons) must be studied 

Be (fully) persuaded . 

(They) may be carried *(away) . 

(I) will have cut (it) 

(They) can be restored 

To have been looking 

(It) must have been found 

Having prevailed 

(I) may decide (the question) 

(It) was written 

(We) must be walking 

(They) tell (the truth) 

(He) can (not) have been studying (it) 

To instruct (him) 

(You) should destroy (it) 

Aching 

(He) may have been shot 

(She) was speaking 

(They) might be suffering 

(I) can see (trees) 

(It) could (not) be printed 

(It) had been raining 

Being lost 

(She) may have been writing 

(We) should be inquiring. 

(It) will have been found 

(You) can be listening 

(It) will be finished 

(I) would obey (orders) 

(They) had (already) departed 

(She) must sing 

(We) should be rewarded 

(I) maybe giving (them away) 

(It) must have been blowing 

You never extinguished the light. . . 



Parts. 


Class. 


Form. 


Mood. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


part. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


part. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


imp. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


part. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


imp. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


inf. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


part. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


inf. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


part. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. „ 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


part. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


ind. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


trans. 


prog. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 



Tense. 



present, 
past perf. 
pres. perf. 
past. 

past perf. 
past perf. 
perfect, 
past perf. 
present, 
pres. perf. 
fut. perf. 
past perf. 
present, 
past. 

past perf. 

present. 

present. 

present. 

fut. perf. 

present. 

perfect. 

pres. perf. 

perfect. 

present. 

past. 

present. 

present. 

pres. perf. 

present. 

past. 

present. 

pres. perf. 

past. 

past. 

present. 

past. 

past perf. 

present. 

pres. perf. 

past. 

fut. perf. 

jjresent. 

future. 

past. 

past perf. 

present, 

past. 

present. 

pres. perf. 

past. 



184 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

VEEBS IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. 



Verbs. 

To be exonerated from all blame. . 

We are marching on 

Having slaughtered the ox 

It may sting you 

I was there 

She must have been invited 

Being expecting a letter 

He did it twice 

Do it again 

The goods must be sold 

I do not remember it 

Sam could not see the lines 

To be exaggerating it 

The sun is declining 

He would have been caught 

" If thou go not with us " 

Being preparing for it 

No one would have suspected it . . 
The boy will have been standing. . 

Our cow does not give milk 

Charlie chose cherries 

Thriving 

Do not stay late 

You must have been making some 



Parts. 


Class. 


Form. 


Mood. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


inf. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


part. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


ind. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


part. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


imp. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


emph. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


inf. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


subj. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


part. 


reg. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


emph. 


ind. 


irr. 


trans. 


com. 


ind. 


irr. 


intr. 


com. 


part. 


irr. 


intr. 


emph. 


imp. 


irr. 


trans. 


prog. 


pot. 



Tense. 



present. 

present. 

perfect. 

present. 

past. 

pres. perf. 

present. 

past. 

present. 

present. 

present. 

past. 

present. 

present. 

past perf. 

present. 

present. 

past perf. 

fut. perf. 

present. 

past. 

present. 

present. 

pres. perf. 



VERBS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

Omit the parentheses. 

The following Verbs are all used in Interrogative Sentences. 
This causes the Nominative and the Verb to be transposed. 
Before disposing of them, the}'- should be converted into De- 
clarative Sentences, in order to know certainly that the ex- 
pression is understood. 



Verbs. 

Must (she) be sewing (shirts) ?. . . . 

Will (it) have been paid ? 

Do (I) write (them correctly) ? . . . 

Might (it) have been done ? 

Has (it) been snowing ? 

Can (you) remain ? 

Shall (we) have been going ? 

Must (you) leave (us) ? 

(What!) studying V 

Should (they) have been punished 

Did (I) speak? 

Might (we) be progressing? 



Parts. 


Class. 


Form. 


Mood. 


Tense. 


reg. 


trans. 


prog. 


pot. 


present. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


ind. 


fut. perf. 


irr. 


trans. 


emph. 


ind. 


present. 


irr. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot: 


past perf. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


pres. perf 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


pot. 


present. 


irr. 


intr. 


prog. 


ind. 


fut. perf. 


i rr. 


trans. 


com. 


pot. 


present. 


reg. 


intr. 


com. 


part. 


present. 


reg. 


trans. 


pass. 


pot. 


past perf. 


irr. 


intr. 


emph. 


ind. 


past. 


reg. 


intr. 


prog. 


pot. 


past. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



185 



YEEBS IN INTEKKOGATTVE SENTENCES. 

Omit the parentheses. 



Verbs. 



Is (he) crying ? 

Could (you) assist (me) ? ... 

Have (I) missed (the train) ? , 

May (it) have been mislaid ? 

Had (he) been whistling ? 

Should (we) be imposed (upon) ?. . . 

Was (he) teaching ? 

Might (we) arrive (too late) '?. .... 

Can (she) be sighing ? 

Will (it) be rebuilt? 

Would (you) be surprised ? 

Had (he) finished (it) ? 

Should (I) be starving ? 

Is (it) written ? 

Could (they) have been trusted ? . . 

Shall (it) be said ? 

May (I) be assisted ? 

Have (you a broken slate) ? 

Can (he) have mistaken (it) ? 

Shall (I) listen ? 

Would (you) arrest (him) ? 

Had (he) been waiting ? 

May (you not) have put (it away) ?. 

Would (it) have been caught ? 

Shall (I) have returned ? 

May (we) have been dreaming ? . . . 

Were (they) killed? 

Could (she) have understood (you) ? 
Must (you) be (again) disappointed ? 

Should (I) repent ? 

Will (he) be reciting (it) ? 

Might (it) be destroyed ? , 

Can (it) have been raining ? 

Shall (it) have been thought ? 

Could (he) be joking ? 

Must (you not) have made (an error) ? 

Shall (we) be hurrying ? 

Can (they) be persuaded ? 

Mast (he not) have been smoking ?. 
Had (it ever) been announced ?. . . . 

Must (I) have burnt (it) ? 

Shall (we) have discovered ? 

Can (you) have been deceived ?...., 

Would (it) have been tied ? 

Will (they) have been playing?. 

Would (I) have lost (it) ? 

Could (it) be represented ? 

Should (she) have been laughing ?. . 

Has (it) been accomplished ? 

May (he) accompany (me) ? 



Parts. 



reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

irr. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

irr. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

jrr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg, 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

irr. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 

reg. 



Class. 



intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

intr. 

intr. 

intr. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 

intr. 

trans. 

trans. 



Form. 



prog, 
com. 
com. 
pass, 
prog. 
pass. 
prog, 
com. 
prog, 
pass, 
pass, 
com. 
prog. 
pass, 
pass, 
pass, 
pass, 
com. 



prog, 
com. 
pass. 
com. 
prog, 
pass. 
com. 
pass, 
com. 
prog; 
pass, 
prog, 
pass, 
prog, 
com. 
prog, 
pass. 

P^og- 
pass. 
com. 
com. 
pass, 
pass, 
prog, 
com. 
pass, 
prog, 
pass, 
com. 



Mood. 



ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 

]DOt. 

ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 
pot. 
pot. 
ind. 
pot. 



Tense. 



present, 
past. 

pres. perf. 
pres. perf. 
past perf. 
past, 
past. 
past, 
present, 
future, 
past. 

past perf. 
past, 
present, 
past perf. 
future, 
present, 
present, 
pres. perf. 
future, 
past. 

past perf. 
pres. perf. 
past perf. 
tut. perf. 
pres. perf. 
past. 

past perf. 
present, 
past, 
future, 
past. 

pres. perf. 
fut. perf. 
past. 

pres. perf. 
future, 
present, 
pres. perf. 
past perf. 
pres. perf. 
fut. perf. 
pres. perf. 
past perf. 
fut. perf. 
past perf. 
past. 

past perf. 
pres. perf. 
present. 



186 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Indicative 



Potential 



Infinitive . 
Imperative 

Participles 



SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "HAVE." 

Present I have*. 

Present Perfect I have had. 

Past I had. 

Past Perfect I had had. 

Future . I shall iiave. 

Future I will have. 

Future Perfect I shall have had. 

. Future Perfect I will have had. 

Present I may have. 

Present I can have. 

Present I must have. 

Present Perfect I may have had. 

Present Perfect I can have had. 

Present Perfect I must have had. 

Past .......... I might have. 

Past I could have. 

Past I would have. 

Past I should have. 

Past Perfect I might have had. 

Past Perfect . .1 could have had. 

Past Perfect I would have had. 

Past Perfect I should have had. 



Subjunctive . . J 

-{ 



Present If I have. 

Past ..If I had. 

Present To have. 

Perfect • To have had. 

Present Have! 



r Present Having. 

J Past Had. 

[ Perfect Having had. 



No more profitable lesson can be assigned for preparation at 
home than a synopsis of some one of the Irregular Verbs in 
the list on page 153, to be written on a sheet of paper or a 
slate in the form given on this page. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



187 



Indicative , 



SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "KNOW/ 5 

Present Thou knowest. 

Present Perfect. .Thou hast known. 

Past Thou knewest. 

Past Perfect . . . .Thou hadst known. 

Future .Thou wilt know. 

Future Thou shalt know. 

Future Perfect . .Thou wilt have known. 
Future Perfect . .Thou shalt have known. 



Potential 



. J 



. J 



Subjunctive . . 



Infinitive 



Present Thou 

Present Thou 

Present Thou 

Present Perfect. .Thou 
Present Perfect. .Thou 
Present Perfect. .Thou 

Past . . .Thou 

Past Thou 

Past Thou 

Past Thou 

Past Perfect ... .Thou 
Past Perfect ....Thou 
Past Perfect ....Thou 
Past Perfect . ...Thou 



mayst know, 
canst know, 
must know, 
mayest have known, 
canst have known, 
must have known, 
mights t know, 
couldst know. 
wouldst know, 
shouldst know, 
mightst have known. 
couldst have known, 
wouldst have known, 
shouldst have known. 



Present If thou know.. 

Past If thou knewest. 

Present To know. 

Perfect To have known. 



Imperative Present Know! 

[ Present Knowing. 

Participles . . . J Past Known. 

I Perfect Having known. 

All the Tenses of the Subjunctive, except the Present, in the 
Second and Third Persons, Singular, are identical with the cor- 
responding Tenses of the Indicative; and not only the Indica- 
tive, but also the Potential, may all be used in a Subjunctive 
sense. 



188 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Indicative . 



Potential . 



Subjunctive . 



Infinitive 



THE VERB "BE." 

Present It is. 

Present Perfect It has been. 

Past It was. 

Past Perfect It had been. 

Future .- It will be. 

Future It shall be. 

Future Perfect It will have been. 

Future Perfect It shall have been. 

Present .It may be. 

Present . . . . , It can be. 

Present It must be. 

Present Perfect It may have been. 

Present Perfect It can have been. 

Present Perfect It must have been. 

Past It might be. 

Past It could be. 

Past It would be. 

Past , It should be. 

Past Perfect It might have been. 

Past Perfect It could have been. 

Past Perfect It would have been. 

Past Perfect It should have been. 

c Present If it be. 

( Past If it were. 

f Present To be. 

1 Perfect To have been. 



Imperative ..... Present "Wanting. 

r Present Being. 

Participles . . . -| Past . Been. 

[ Perfect Having been. 

The Subjunctive Mood as a special and distinct classification 
of Tenses, has almost become obsolete. When any tense of the 
Potential is combined with if it must be parsed as Potential 
with the signification of Subjunctive. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 189 

CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a Verb is the Classification of all its 

Moods and Tenses, including Derivative Forms. 

A Synopsis is the arrangement of the variations of one 
Number and Person in all the Moods and Tenses, as shown 
on the three preceding pages. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. (Certainty.) 





Sing. 




Plu. 


1. 


I am, 


1. 


We are, 


2. 


Thou art, 


2. 


You are, 


3. 


He, she, it is. 


3. 


They are. 




Present Perfect 1 


n ense. (Cei 


•taint y.) 


1. 


I have been, 


1. 


We have been, 


■2. 


Thou hast been, 


2. 


You have been, 


3. 


He, she, it has been. 


3. 


They have been. 




Past Tense. 


(Certainty. ) 


1. 


I was, 


1. 


W T e were, 


2. 


Thou wast, 


2. 


You were, 


3. 


He, she, it was. 


2. 


They were. 




Past Perfect Tense. (Certainty.) 


1. 


I had been, 


1. 


We had been, 


2. 


Thou hadst been, 


2. 


You had been, 


3. 


He, she, it had been. 


3. 


They had been. 




Future Tense. 


(Simj'le Fui 


Uirity.) 


1. 


I shall be, 


1. 


We shall be, 


2. 


Thou wilt be, 


2. 


You will be, 


3. 


He, she, it will be. 


3. 


They will be. 




Future Tense. 


(Determination. ) 


1. 


I will be, 


1. 


We will be, 


2. 


Thou shalt be, 


2. 


You shall be,' 


3. 


He, she, it shall be. 


3. 


They shall be. 




Future Perfect Tense. (Simple 


Futurity. ) 


1. 


I shall have been, 


1. 


We shall have been, 


o 


Thou wilt have been, 


2. 


You will have been, 


8. 


He, she, it will have been. 


3. 


They will have been. 




Future Perfect Tense. (Deter, 


initiation.) 


1. 


I will have been, 


1. 


We will have been, 


2. 


Thou shalt have been, 


2. 


You shall have been, 


3. 


He, she, it shall have been. 


3. 


They shall have been. 



190 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 







Potential Mood. 








1. 
2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 
Sing. 

I may be, 

Thou mayst be, 
He, she, it may be. 

Present Tense. 


{Probability.) 

Plu. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 

(Possibility.) 








1. 

2. 


I can be, 
Thou canst be, 


1. We can be, 

2. You can be, 








3. 


He can be. 

Present Tense. 


3. They can be. 

(Necessity. ) 








1. 


I must be, 


1. We must be, 








2. 


Thou must be, 


2. You must be, 








3. 


He, she, it must be. 


3. They must be. 










Present Perfect Tense. 






1. 


I may, can, or must have been, 


1. We may, can, or must have been, 


2. 


Thou mayst, canst, or must have 
been, 


2. You may, can, or 
been, 


must have 


3. 


He, she, it may, can, or must have 
been. 


3. They may, can, or 
been. 


must have 






Past Tense. 






1. 


I mig 

be : 


;ht, could, would, or should 


1. We might, could, 
should be, 


WTUlld, 


or 


2. 


• Thou 
or 


mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
shouldst be, 


2. You might, could, 
should be, 


would, 


or 


3. 


He, she, it might, could, would, 
or should be. 


3. They might, could, 
should be. 


would, 


or 


1. 


Past Perfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, 
have been, should have been, 


would, 


or 


2. 
3. 


Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst have been, 
He, she, it might, could, would, 

or should have been. 


2. You might, could, 

should have been, 

3. They might, could, 

should have been. 


would, 
would, 


or 
or 






Subjunctive Mood. 








1. 

2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 
If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he, she, it be. 

Past Tense. 


(Contingency.) 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 
(11 ypothesis.) 








1. 
2. 


If I were, 
If thou wert, 


1. If wc wore, 

2. If you were, 








3. 


If he, she, it were. 


3. If they were. 







EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



191 



Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. 
(All the Persons in both Numbers alike.) 
Sing. Plu. 

(For me) to be, 1. (For us) to be, 

(For thee) to be, 2. (For you) to be, • 

(For him, her, it) to be. 3. (For them) to be. 

Perfect Tense. 
(All the Persons in both Numbers alike.) 
(For me) to have been, 1. (For us) to have been, 

(For thee) to have beeu, 2. (For you) to have been. 

(For him, her, it) to have been. 3. (For them) to have been. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Wanting. 1. Wanting. 

Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 2. Be, or be ye. 

Wanting. 3. Wanting. 

Participles. 
(Impersonal.) 



Present — Being. 



Past — Having been. 



Perfect — Been. 

The Infinitives are wholly impersonal. But we have indi- 
cated their use after the Objective Case of each Person in both 
Numbers. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB GIVE. 

Indicative Mood. 
Present. 





Sing. 




Plu. 


1. 


I give, 


1. 


We give, 


2. 


Thou givest, 


2. 


You give, 


3. 


He, she, it gives. 


3. 

Present Perfect. 


They give. 


1. 


I have given, 


1. 


We have given, 


2. 


Thou hast given, 


2. 


You have given, 


3. 


He, she, it has given. 3. 


They have given. 






Past. 




1. 


. I gave, 


1. 


We gave, 


2. 


Thou gavest, 


2. 


You gave, 


3. 


He, she, it gave. 


3. 

Past Perfect. 


They gave. 


1. 


I had given, 


1. 


We had given, 


2. 


Thou haclst given. 


2. 


You had given, 


3. 


He, she, it had gi 1 


ren. 3. 


They had given. 



192 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Future. {Prediction or Determination.) 
Sing. Plu. 

1. I shall or will give, 1. We shall or will give, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt give, 2. You will or shall give, 

3. He, she, it will or shall give. 3. They will or shall give. 

Future Perfect. [Prediction or Determination. ) 

1. I shall or will have given, 1. We shall or will have given, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have given, 2. You will or shall have given, 

3. He, she, it will or shall have given. 3. They will or shall have given. 

Potential Mood. 
Present. {Probability, Possibility, or Necessity. ) 

1. I may, can, or must give, 1. We may, can, or must give, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must give, 2. You may, can, or must give. 

3. He, she, it may, can, or must give. 3. They may, can, or must give. 

Present Perfect. {Probability, Possibility, or Necessity.) 

1. I may, can, or must have given, 1. We may, can, or must have given. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

given, given, 

3. He, she, it may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

given. given. 

Past. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

give, should give, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should st give, should give, 

3. He, she, it might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 

or should give. should give. 

Past Perfect. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have given, should have given, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. You might, could, would, or 

or shouldst have given, should have given, 

3. He, she, it might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 

or should have given. should have given. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present— To give. Perfect — To have given. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present. 
1. Wanting. 1. Wanting. 

2- Give, or give thou, or do thou give. 2. Give, or give ye. 
3. Wanting. 3. Wanting. 

Participles. 
Present — Giving. Past — Given. 

Perfect — Having given. 



PART IV. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 



Showing the structure of Sentences and their component parts, including 
Propositions of all kinds, Modifying Elements, Clauses, and Phrases; together 
with the most important Rules of Syntax, illustrated by numerous Examples. 
9 



194 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

sand the gold has miner in the found 
The miner has found gold in the sand. 
Has the miner found gold in the sand? 
"What bright gold the miner has found! 
Find some gold in the sand for me. 

Write these five lines on the blackboard. 

. What is meant by the combination of words in the first line ? 
Nothing. 

Has not each word a meaning? Yes; but when taken as a 
whole, they mean nothing. 

Why have these words no meaning ? Because they are not 
properly arranged. 

How can we give these words a meaning ? By arranging 
them properly. 

Has the second line any meaning? Yes; the new arrange- 
ment gives it a meaning. 

Of whom are we thinking ? The miner. 

Give all the words that tell what we think about the miner. 
Has found gold in the sand. 

When these two parts are combined, what Sentence is 
formed ? The miner has found gold in the sand. 

What is the Subject of this Sentence ? The miner. 

What is the Predicate, or completion of the thought ? Has 
found gold in the sand. 

Definition I. A Simple Sentence is a combination of words 
that expresses a single thought. 

Def. II. The Subject of a Simple Sentence is what we 
think of. 

Def. III. The Predicate of a Simple Sentence is what we 
think concerning the Subject. 

The third line is a Sentence in the form of a question; the 
fourth contains a Sentence in the form of an exclamation; the 
fifth is a Sentence in the form of a command or request. Sen- 
tences are, therefore, divided into four classes: Declarative, 
Interrogative, Exclamatory, and Imperative. How and 
what are the exclamatory signs. 

This use of the word what is entirely distinct from its other 
uses. It is here an Interjection. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 195 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Def. IV. A Declarative Sentence is one that affirms or de- 
nies something. 

Def. V. An Interrogative Sentence is one that propounds 
a question. 

Def. VI. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses 
impulsive thought. 

Def. VII. An Imperative Sentence is one that commands, 
requests, entreats, or permits. 

Def. VIII. Synthesis is the building up or construction of 
a Sentence from its parts. 

Def. IX. Analysis is the separation of a Sentence into its 
parts, or elements. 

Def. X. Punctuation is the method of indicating by points 
the class to which a Sentence belongs, or the relation of its 
parts to each other. 

PUNCTUATION AND USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Rule I. Every Declarative and Imperative Sentence 
must terminate with a Period (.). 

Rule II. Every Interrogative Sentence must be followed 
by an Interrogation Point (?). 

Rule III. Every Exclamatory Sentence must be followed 
by an Exclamation Point (!). 

Rule IV. Every Sentence must begin with a Capital Letter. 

Rule V. Every Interrogation or Exclamation Point and 
Period must be followed by a Capital Letter in the succeed- 
ing Sentence. 

Rule VI. Every Proper Name must begin with a Capital 
Letter. 

Rule VII. In Titles of Honor, Titles of Literary Works, 
Captions, Labels, and Advertisements, only the most im- 
portant words must begin with Capital Letters. 

Rule VIII. Every word that is contracted and every Ini- 
tial Letter must be followed by a Period. 

Rule IX. The letters I and O, when standing alone, must be 
Capital Letters. 

Rule X. The omission of one or more letters must be indi- 
cated by an apostrophe; as, e'er for ever. 



196 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

The little bird has built its nest in the tree. 

This is a Simple Declarative Sentence, because it expresses a 
single thought, affirming something. It begins with a Capital 
Letter, and terminates with a Period. The Subject is " The 
little bird," because that is what we are thinking of. The Pred- 
icate is cc has built its nest in the tree," because this is what we 
think about the bird. 

How many birds can live in the same nest? 

This is a Simple Interrogative Sentence, because it expresses 
a single thought by asking a question. It begins with a Capi- 
tal Letter, is introduced by the interrogative word " How," 
and terminates with an Interrogation Point. The Subject is 
"How many birds," because it is what the question is asked 
about. The Predicate is " can live in the same nest," because 
it is what is asked concerning the birds. 

"What a glorious sunset we had this evening! 

This is a Simple Exclamatory Sentence, because it expresses 
one impulsive thought. It is introduced by the exclamatory 
sign " What!" It begins with a Capital Letter, and terminates 
with an Exclamation Point. The Subject is " we," because it 
indicates who witnessed the sunset, and shows of whom we 
think. The Predicate is " had (what) a glorious sunset this 
evening," because it expresses what is thought. 
Give all the cherries to the birds. 

This is a Simple Imperative Sentence, because it expresses a 
single thought as a command or request. It begins with a 
Capital Letter and terminates with a Period. The Subject is 
"you" (understood), because it shows who is addressed, and 
tells, therefore, of whom we think. The Predicate is (< give all 
the cherries to the birds," because it expresses what we think 
or wish to be done. 

Each Sentence should be written upon the blackboard, and a 
short vertical line drawn between the Subject and Predicate. 
When the words are transposed, they should be re-arranged in 
the order required by the construction, as in the third Sentence. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 197 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
My father is not a politician. 

This is a Simple Declarative Sentence, because it expresses a 
single thought, denying something. It begins with a Capital 
Letter, and terminates with a Period. The Subject is "My 
father," because it is he of whom the speaker is thinking. The 
Predicate is " is not a politician," because it expresses what is 
declared, and therefore thought, concerning him. 

Where is the key of the front door? 

This is a Simple Interrogative Sentence, because it expresses 
a single thought by asking a question. It begins with a Capital 
Letter, is introduced by the interrogative word " Where," and 
terminates with an Interrogation Point. The Subject is " the 
key of the front door/' because it is what the inquirer is think- 
ing of and asking about. The Predicate is " Where is," or 
(transposed) "is where," because it indicates what the in- 
quiry is. 

How my head does ache! 

This is a Simple Exclamatory Sentence, because it expresses 
one impulsive thought. It is introduced by the exclamatory 
word " How!" The Subject is " my head," because it is what 
the speaker is thinking of. The Predicate is " does ache (how)," 
because it tells what is thought concerning the head. 

Study your lesson very carefully. 

This is a Simple Imperative Sentence, because it expresses a 
single thought as a command or request. It begins with a Cap- 
ital Letter, and terminates with a Period. The Subject is 
" you " (understood), because it represents the person thought 
of and addressed. The Predicate is " study your lesson very 
carefully/ 5 because it expresses what the speaker thinks or de- 
sires you to do. 

It will be observed that the object of these exercises is to de- 
termine the Subject and the Predicate, and to become famil- 
iar with the structure of the Simple Sentence in each of the 
four forms, so as to be able without hesitation to give the analy- 
sis, with the reasons, as shown on this and the preceding page. 



198 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Transpose the words in the following four combinations so as 
to construct an example of each of the four kinds of Simple 
Sentences; then analyze them, as on the two preceding pages: 

Declarative, you of the observed rules not the have game 

Interrogative, the saw in the room of her many people how 

Exclamatory, that long horse what mane has a bay . 

Imperative. cage the keep in this little wire canary 

When transposed, they become: 

Bed You have not observed the rules of the game. 
Inter. How many of the people in the room saw her? 
Excl. What a long mane that bay horse has! 
Imp. Keep the canary in this little wire cage. 

The analysis may be shown thus: 

You | have not observed the rules of the game. 
(How) many of the people in the room | saw her? 
That bay horse | has (what) a long mane! 
(You) | keep the canary in this little wire cage. 

It will be observed that by omitting the interrogative sign 
How from the second Sentence, and the exclamatory sign 
What from the third, and changing the punctuation, these 
would be transformed into Declarative Sentences. The same 
thing would be true of the fourth by inserting the word You 
at the beginning. The division into Subject and Predicate is 
shown by the short vertical line. Copious exercises have been 
prepared on the following pages, without punctuation or prop- 
erly arranged capital letters. These may be assigned in lessons 
of suitable length. They will afford pleasure as well as in- 
struction to junior classes, and will be found as attractive as 
games. 

No attention should be given to the more minute details of 
analysis, by describing the modifying words, phrases, and 
clauses, until after completing the following exercises in re- 
arrangement and construction of Subject and Predicate. After 
the Definitions of the different modifiers have been studied 
and the manner of applying them understood, these Sentences 
should be reviewed and the nature of each modifying element 
explained. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 199 

WOEDS TO BE EE-ABBANGED AS SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Each sentence must be 'punctuated, supplied with capital letters, and analyzed, 
as on preceding page. 

Decl. depth was ground three feet in the Frozen 
Inter, that find Did money all where george 
Excl. bill brown bravely Storm the blinding faced how 
Imp. letter your follow to The Instructions 

Decl. and the Darkness clouds the dispels sun 

Inter, how many you feel The Do Pain in places 

Excl. a beautiful Been has what this Day 

Imp. for Exertion upon Success Own your Rely 

Decl. and the evil rain upon the Descends the Good 

Inter, friends have what you in Living Cities 

Excl. opportunities have many how we lost 

Imp. room the Morning in the daily Sweep 

Decl. can a Minute twenty i Words receive 
Inter, one will chance Me give you More 
Excl. we lesson a Short what had Yesterday 
Imp. all away let his Books put Him 

Decl. never shall country my Native return to i 
Inter, so did the Eesult quickly obtain how She 
Excl. view it from how our Eapidly disappeared 
Imp. morning at Me o clock in The call five 

Decl. all Parts of they from the Came world 
Inter. Joseph Eead the ever story of You Did 
Excl. i tried him Often how to have Persuade 
Imp. thirty of us flannel pieces send 

Decl. gone friends Have our Intimate all 

Inter, it can Definition of Give you a good me 

Excl. sensation has what it a great Created 

Imp. former us Privileges to all our restore 

Decl. the Naked sun looking The dazzles at Eye 
Inter, black Warm are Too clothes for the Summer why 
Excl. great of The godliness Mystery is how 
Imp. more behalf in His least Effort at one make 



200 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

WORDS TO BE RE- ARRANGED AS SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Each sentmce must be, punctuated, supplied with capital letters, and analyzed, 
as on preceding page. 

Decl. warning the Fair boys gave all A he 

Inter, children Did where they lost The find 

Excl. end the Faithfully unto he how Endured 

Imp. all field the drive into the Chickens 

Decl. his fortune sometimes Manners a Man's make 

Inter, open the Leave why you do the Room of your door 

Excl. many Concealed ocean Are in depths how treasures 

Imp. country Into the Journey on a short go 

Decl. Health takes the Sake of his Exercise for he 
Inter, and how in The next exist am I where to world 
Excl. that severe Was what earthquake of a shock 
Imp. bread Us daily this give Our day 

Decl. gem the Diamond Most the brilliant is 
Inter, not writing Rapid Good writing always is 
Excl. noble the theme Of a science Is what astronomy 
Imp. trust not money Alone in Your put 

Decl. lasting any People is sin to a Disgrace 
Inter, money out to Find how we Can make the Way 
Excl. that Beard what has a beautiful White old man 
Imp. not For the weep that Have before Gone friends 

Decl. and the garden Expelled the eve From adam were 

Inter, air What is Composed Of the gases 

Excl. neglect a disaster By what was a terrible caused 

Imp. one burdens Another's Bear ye 

Decl. six gas at the Light we always o clock 

Inter, some will week next Call us On you Evening 

Excl. rain carries a Umbrella in the large He what 

Imp), and All wide windows the open Doors 

Decl. unworthy Is charity of our Utterly he 

Inter, that there swearing of what Man's need is 

Excl. inevitable death is the how of Approach 

Imp. stairs come down this minute 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 201 

WOEDS TO BE RE-ARRANGED AS SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Each sentence must he punctuated, supplied with capital letters, and analyzed, 
as on preceding page. 

Decl. nests without their birds Instruction the Build 

Inter-, sam my know You brother do 

Excl. a large Just has caught what Fish he 

Imp. point your Sharp keep on a pencil 

Decl. and Pure Terrors has death for the no good 

Inter, many Sky can count in the how you stars 

Eoccl. bright that flash of a Lightning what was 

Imp. absence your remember your during friends 

Decl. all the since has twice she world Over traveled 
Inter, for us will train the Time call you in 
Eoccl. you been Kind have and how good 
Imp. lights put the do out Not at all Once 

Decl. part must Last and at truest the Best friends 
Infer, far can Stone you throw a how 
Eoccl. shower had a Nice Night what we last of Rain 
Imp. garden some Fresh in the nice pick flowers 

Decl. three stamps No Cent here have i 

Inter, pay did what him That Pen for you Gold 

Excl. and his cheerless Cold how was Reply 

Imp. our messenger Letters for a send 

Decl. very grind the gods of the Slowly Mills 

Inter, should Ignorance encouragecl Idleness and be 

Excl. prodigious had a torn head what 

Imp. the pity Old Man of a poor Sorrows 

Devi, each Meals eat Day usually we Three 

Inter, straps your Boot lift you Can by Yourself 

Excl. i news the Gladly Good how to listened 

Imp. to-day flowers My Room to wild some bring 

Decl. for other be it can No Given Reason 
Inter, zebedee's father of the Children who was 
Excl. display the grand children what Made A 
Imp. ask more just questions me now no 



202 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

WORDS TO BE RE-ARRANGED AS SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Each sentence must be punctuated, supplied with capital letters, and analyzed, 
as on preceding page. 

Decl. again i to speak you never will 

Inter, the battle of Disappear will Ever smoke 

Excl. it often told him about how i have 

Imp. care prepare with all your great lessons 

Decl. has No Ages existed The Earth for doubt 
Inter, land The Wharves at the Boat which does of 
Excl. flock a Large Birds of what i see 
Imp. the call for your home on the way children 

Decl. i to like Pictures do not Ugly at the look 

Inter, you have seen the Ever Shining Day Time in the stars 

Excl. faithless untrue Many and prove how Friends 

Imp. and Drink Tobacco avoid of the Strong Use 

Decl. a Hundred Horse bought Three Dollars for a man 
Inter, have a Report upon the Agreed Committee 
Excl. a Long Wait obliged to time what we were 
Imp. that question Merits upon Its Own Decide 

Decl. the Early should not worm out too Venture 
Inter, nest the Little where its build did bird 
Excl. be a Vast Will what that assemblage 
Imp. address his Friends for the stranger ask 

Decl. own every Brings its day duties succeeding 

Inter, i garden your Come into this May Morning 

Excl. been it cold and Late has of Stormy how 

Imp. sentences all compare of the Both Words 

Decl. many honey collect Flowers from bees 
Inter, mail the Send we shall By money 
Excl. you strange a Question what have asked 
Imp. studies out a Programme of our make 

Decl. much were also Days then the Longer 
Inter, retire your From will Ever business father 
Excl. must such a Dreadful Be how death 
Imp. pencil the use of Instead the to-day Pen 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 203 

WORDS TO BE RE- ARRANGED AS SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Each sentence must he punctuated, supplied with capital letters, and analyzed, 
as on preceding page. 

Decl. far happy is there away a Far Land 

Inter, for look the Long Error how you did 

Excl. sweetly how sing o they 

Imp. grass the Children all the play upon let 

Decl. birds a large Collected Number of has she 

Inter, you last your letter when did receive 

Excl. sailing gallantly how Ships the Go By 

Imp. shore the Count upon the sea sands 

Decl. glass people In Stones should not throw houses 

Inter, box the little of the cover where is 

Excl. have the Elegantly decorated how they room 

Imp. to-morrow All the Exercises before Examine 

Decl. wicked people this poor Oppressed ruler the Always 

Inter, the Wheel interrupted been motion Of the has 

Excl. mistake made you an unpardonable what Have 

Imp. the Whole surprise of the imagine party 

Decl. i always effort with Can sufficient improve 

Inter, sleep their briny fishes ever in the do home 

Excl. Effects feel the loss of the Severely must how he 

Imp. to-morrow from evening meeting the early return 

Decl. wind the Direction straws of the Show 

Inter, many cow's wrinkles the horns on how there are 

Excl. the Carefully Resolutions have the prepared how boys 

Imp. your brother books The pass the table to on those 

Decl. he Opinions his positive and is in dogmatical too 

Inter, the White surface on the water of the why is foam 

Excl. whale a large Sea saw at the passengers what 

Imp. pasture the little Corn Plant beyond the field In 

Decl. except the Room he no find in book could this Other 

Inter, book my Name when you write the new Will in 

Excl. the last Country rained it in how Month 

Imp. bank in your Morning Money in the deposit The 



204 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 

The horse | ran away. 

To attain greatness | should be our constant aim. 

Making money | occupied all his attention. 

Gold and silver | are found in California. 

The teacher [ assigned a lesson and dismissed the class. 

We | use both gold and silver for money. 

Write the above sentences on the blackboard. 

The first Sentence has but one Noun in the Subject and one 
Verb in the Predicate. The Subject and Predicate are, there- 
fore, both said to be Simple. 

In the second Sentence the Infinitive Phrase is equivalent to 
" The attainment of greatness," and therefore constitutes a 
Simple Subject. The Predicate contains but one Verb, and is 
thus a Simple Predicate. 

The Participial Phrase, " Making money," in the third Sen- 
tence, means "The accumulation of wealth," and for tbis rea- 
son forms a Simple Subject. The Predicate, having but one 
Verb, is likewise Simple. 

We find in the Subject of the fourth Sentence two Nouns. 
It is for this reason called a Compound Subject. The Predi- 
cate, having but one Verb, is Simple. 

The Subject of the fifth Sentence, containing but one Noun, 
is Simple; but the Predicate, having two Verbs, is for this rea- 
son said to be Compound. 

Both Subject and Predicate of the sixth Sentence are Sim- 
ple. But the Verb, having two Objectives, is said, for this rea- 
son, to have a Compound Object. 

Def. XI. A Simple Subject is one that contains only one 
Noun or Noun-Phrase. 

Def. XII. A Compound Subject is one that contains more 
than one Noun or Noun-Phrase. 

Def. XIII. A Simple Predicate is one that contains only 
one Finite Verb. 

Def. XIV. A Compound Predicate is one that contains 
more than one Finite Verb. 

Def. XV. A Simple Sentence has but one Subject and one 
Predicate; but either or both of these may be Compound or 
Simple. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 205 

PBOPOSITIONS AND CLAUSES. 

Words are the signs of ideas. 

Write the word Snow on the blackboard. 

This -word reminds you of a familiar substance. 

The idea of snow is suggested externally. 

The mind immediately acts upon this idea. 

Thinking is the name given to this action. 

Think of the color of the snow. 

Express your thought by writing it. 

The expression of the thought forms a Sentence. 

Think of the effect of applying heat to the snow, and express 
your thoughts. 

The new Sentence contains three thoughts, which may be 
connected by using the words printed in italics. Write these 
on the blackboard: 

Snow | is white. 

Snow | melts, and water | is produced, when heat | is applied. 

The Sentence, ''Snow is white" has another name. 

When the Subject is combined with its Predicate, it forms 
what is termed a Proposition; and when there are several Sub- 
jects with their Predicates in the same Sentence, each Subject 
with its Predicate forms a separate Proposition. 

The first Sentence above contains but one Proposition. 

The second Sentence has three distinct Propositions. Snow 
melts is the first Proposition, water is produced is the sec- 
ond, and heat is applied the third. 

The Connective and connects the first and second, and the 
Connective "when connects these two, combined, with the third. 
The three Propositions of the second Sentence are also called 
Clauses. The connective word may be one of the essential 
words of the Proposition to which this important function is 
assigned; or it may be a special word that is seldom or never used 
for any other purpose. And and when are of the latter class. 

Def. XVI. A Proposition is a Subject combined with its 
Predicate. 

Def. XYII. A Clause is any portion of a Sentence that in- 
cludes a complete Proposition. 

Clauses must not be confounded with Phrases. 



206 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

[Time] is short, but [eternity] is long. 

[The bird] flew away when [the boy] opened the window. 

Pay [thou] the money during my absence if [the collector] comes. 

How many fish did [he] catch while [he] was in the country? 

[The man (that) discovered the mine] died poor. 

[I] gave the money to a poor woman (who) was destitute. 

In the first four Sentences, two Independent Clauses, either 
of which would make good sense if detached, are connected by 
the words but, when, if, and while. These words are called 
Connectives. The Subject of each Proposition is inclosed in 
brackets. Such Sentences are said to be Compound, each 
Clause having almost as independent an existence as if standing- 
alone. 

The fifth Sentence may be easily separated into two parts. The 
first is " The man that discovered the mine. 5 ' This is properly 
the Subject of the Sentence. The second part, "died poor," is 
the Predicate. The Subject, however, contains a Clause, " who 
discovered the mine," used to identify " the man " who died 
poor. Its existence depends upon the circumstance that we 
wish to indicate which man died poor. The Subject of this 
Clause is in parenthesis marks. Such a Sentence as this is 
called Complex. The word in this Sentence that performs the 
function of a Connective is that, the Subject of the Eelative 
Clause. 

The Subject of the sixth Sentence is "I." The Predicate 
proper contains a Clause, which could not exist independently. 
The Subject of the Sentence is in brackets; that 'of the Clause 
is in parenthesis marks. This Sentence is also Complex. 

Compound Sentences are Simple Sentences combined. 

Def. XVIII. A Compound Sentence is one that contains 
two or more Independent Clauses, which are generally united 
by some connective word. 

Def. XIX. A Complex Sentence is one whose Subject or 
Predicate contains Dependent modifying Clauses that cannot 
be detached. 

Def. XX. Clauses that are independent of each other are 
called Co-ordinate, while those that are dependent upon oth- 
ers are said to be Subordinate. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 207 

HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCES. 

[The man (who sold his wheat) made a large profit]; but [the 
money (that he received) was deposited in a bank (that failed),] and 
he lost all. 

In this. Sentence the principal assertions are: 

1. That the man made a profit. 

2. That the money was deposited in an unsafe place; and, 

3. That he lost all. 

The three parts that contain these statements are Co-ordinate; 
but the first part contains also a Subordinate Clause, which 
would make it a Complex Sentence if detached at the semico- 
lon; the second part contains two Subordinate Clauses, which 
would make it also Complex; and the final Clause would make 
a Simple Sentence. 

We might, therefore, consider the entire Sentence to be 
Compound, since it contains three Co-ordinate Propositions. 
But we must also pronounce it Complex, for it has three Subor- 
dinate Clauses as modifiers of the principal Propositions. 
Heretofore, authors have neglected to classify such Sentences, 
so far as we are aware; and in the absence of a better term, we 
shall hereafter, when referring to such Sentences as this, use 
the term Heterogeneous, or Mixed. 

The principal, or Co-ordinate Complex Clauses, as modified, 
are contained in brackets, while the Subordinate, or modifying 
Clauses, are inserted in parenthesis marks. In analyzing, name 
the Co-ordinate Clauses first, considering the Subordinate ones 
as simple modifying words. 

Def. XXI. Heterogeneous or Mixed Sentences are Com- 
pound Sentences, any or all of whose independent parts are 
complex, with Principal and Subordinate Clauses. 

The Kelative Clause, " who sold his wheat," does not require 
a special connective word to unite it to the Principal Clause, 
" The man made a large profit," for the Subject of the former,. 
who, assumes the additional function of connecting the two 
Clauses. The same thing is true of the two Subordinate 
Clauses contained in the second part; both are connected with 
the Principal Proposition by the Eelative Pronoun that, 
which, in each, is the Subject-Nominative as well as the Con- 
nective. 



208 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

MODIFIEBS, OE ELEMENTS. 

People speculate. 

Men use money. 

Many men regularly deposit their money. 

By examining Ex. XXII., page 16, it is evident that a great 
difference exists between the Verbs in the seventh and eighth 
lines. (Introduction, page vii.) The same difference is found 
in the first two Verbs on this page, " speculate "and " use." 

" Speculate " is Intransitive, and has a complete signification 
without adding any other words. But " use," being a Transi- 
tive Verb, fails to express a complete thought without some 
other word following. If, however, the word " money " is 
added, the two words taken together, " use money," have no 
greater power of expression than the Intransitive Verb " specu- 
late" possesses alone. 

Wherefore we may infer that it requires both the Transitive 
Verb and its Object to express as much as the Intransitive 
Verb is capable of expressing alone. 

We shall, therefore, regard the Object not only as a modi- 
fier of the Transitive Verb, but also as the most important of 
all its modifiers, and hence worthy of the first mention. 

In the third Sentence, " Many men " is the Subject, and " reg- 
ularly deposit their mone}^ " is the Predicate. 

We call " men" the Subject-Nominative, and " deposit" 
the Predicate-Verb. 

The word " Many," an Adjective, limits the number of "men," 
and is called an Adjective Element. 

The word " regularly," an Adverb, modifies "deposit," by 
indicating method, and is called an Adverbial Element. 

The word " mone} r ," a Noun, is the Object of the Transitive 
Verb " deposit," and as its chief modifier is known as an Ob- 
jective Element. 

The word " their," a Pronoun, limits the Noun " money," 
and is also an Adjective Element. 

Def. XXII. The Subject-Nominative is the principal 
word in the Subject, when taken without its modifiers. 

The Subject is frequently some Infinitive or Participial 
Phrase; no one word can then be selected as the Subject-Nomi- 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 209 

native, but the whole Phrase becomes the Nominative of the 
Verb. 

Def. XXIII. The Predicate-Verb is the Verb, including 
Auxiliaries, without any of its modifiers. 

Def. XXIV. An Adjective Element is any modifier of the 
Subject-Nominative . 

Adjective Elements are aTso used to modify the Object of the 
Predicate-Verb or of any Preposition. 

Def. XXV. An Adverbial Element is any modifier of the 
Predicate Verb, or of any other modifier. 

Adjective and Adverbial Elements may consist of "Words, 
Phrases, or Clauses. 

Def. XXVI. A Phrase is any group of words that does not 
form a Proposition, but has a distinct significance when used as 
a modifier, a Nominative, or the Object of a Transitive Verb. 

Def. XXVII. An Objective Element is the Object of a 
Transitive Verb, and is the principal modifier in the Predicate. 

Def. XXVIII. An Independent Element is any word or 
Phrase used without any connection with the Predicate; such 
as an Interjection, a Noun in the Independent Case, or any ex- 
clamation, or an introductory expression. 

Def. XXIX. An Infinitive Phrase is one that consists of a 
Verb in the Infinitive Mood, with or without adverbial mod- 
ifiers. 

Def. XXX. A Participial Phrase is one that consists of a 
Participle with its modifiers. 

Def. XXXI. A Prepositional Phrase is one that is intro- 
duced by a Preposition; it may be an Adjective or an Adverbial 
Element. 

One Prepositional Phrase may become very complicated by 
the addition of others as modifiers. The Principal Word is 
the Object of the first Preposition used. The Principal Word 
is always modified by the entire Phrase that follows, whose 
Principal "Word may again be modified in the same manner, and 
so on indefinitely. 

The Connective of the Prepositional Phrase is the Prepo- 
sition, and the Principal Word is the Object of the Prepo- 
sition. 



210 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

ANALYSIS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

PASSIVE FORM. 

Many works of great excellence have recently been produced in 
this country, by popular authors of acknowledged ability, to supply 
the increasing demand for general knowledge. 

Subject, "Many works of great excellence." 

Predicate, " have recently been produced in this country, 
by popular authors of acknowledged ability, to supply the in- 
creasing demand for general knowledge." 

Subject-Nominative, " works." 

Predicate- Verb, " have been produced." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. element, word, " Many, " expressing quantity. 

2. Adj. el., prepositional phrase, "of great excellence" (a), expressing 

quality. 

Modifiers of Predicate-Yerb : 

1. Adv. el., word " recently," expressing time. 

2. Adv. el., prep, phrase "in this country," (6), expressing place. 

3. Adv. el., prep, phrase "by popular authors of acknowledged ability" (c), 

expressing agency. 

4. Adv. el., infinitive phrase "to supply the increasing demand for geueral 

knowledge " (d), expressing cause. 
(«) Connective, prep, "of;" principal word, " excellence," modified by adj. 
el., word "great," expressing degree. 

(b) Connective, prep, "in;" principal word, " country, " modified by adj. el., 

word "this," expressing limit. 

(c) Connective, prep, "by;" principal word, "authors," modified, first, by 

adj. el., word " popular, " expressing kind; second, by adj. el., prep, 
phrase "of acknowledged ability," expressing quality, and composed 
of connective, prep, "of," and principal word, " ability," modified by 
adj. el., word " acknowledged, " expressing degree. 

(d) Connective, infinitive sign "to;" prin. word, " supply, "modified by obj- 

el., word "demand," whose modifiers are, first, adj. el., word "the;" 
second, adj. el., word "increasing;" third, prep, phrase "for gen- 
eral knowledge," having the connective, prep, "for," and prin. word, 
" knowledge, " modified by adj. el., word "general," expressing char- 
acter. 

The expression "by popular authors," is not the complete 
modifier; it must be given as modified by " of acknowledged 
ability." 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 211 

ANALYSIS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

ACTIVE OR COMMON FORM. 

Even the savages of the earliest prehistoric period had. already, in 
some way, -without the aid of modern science, domesticated certain 
animals of suitable structure to bear the oppressive weight of their 
accumulating burdens. 

A Simple Declarative Sentence. 

Connective, "Even," connecting with some preceding 
thought. 

Subject, "the savages of the earliest prehistoric period." 
Predicate, all that follows the Subject. 
Subject-Nominative, " savages." 
Predicate- Verb, " had domesticated." 
Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adjective element, word "the," expressing identity.' 

2. Adj. el., prepositional phrase "of the earliest prehistoric period" (a), ex- 

pressing limit. 

Modifiers of Predicate- Verb: 

1. Adverbial el., word "already," denoting time. 

2. Adv. el., prep, phrase "in some way " (b), expressing means. 

3. Adv. el., prep, phrase "without the aid of modern science " (c), express- 

ing means. 

4. Objective el., phrase " certain animals of suitable structure " {d). 

5. Adv. el., infinitive phrase "to bear the oppressive weight of their accu- 

mulating burdens " {e), denoting cause. 

(a) Connective, prep, "of;" prin. word, " period," modified by adj. elements, 

"the," "earliest," and "prehistoric," expressing limit. 

(b) Connective, prep, "in;" prin. word, " way, " modified by adj. el., word 

"some," expressing identity. 

(c) Connective, prep, "without;" prin. word, "aid," modified, first, by adj. 

el., word "the;" and second, by adj. el., prep, phrase "of modern sci- 
ence," of which the connective is " of," and prin. word "science," 
modified by adj. el., "modern," limiting. 

(d) Object, word "animals," modified, first, by adj. el., word "certain," ex- 

pressing identity; second, by adj. el., prep, phrase "of suitable struc- 
ture," descriptive, of which connective is "of," and prin. word " struc- 
ture," modified by adj. el., word " suitable, " expressing adaptation. 

(e) Infinitive, "to bear," whose object is " weight," modified, first, by adj. 

el., "the;" second, adj. el., " oppressive," descriptive; third, adj. el., 
prep, phrase "of their accumulating burdens, "having connective "of," 
and prin. word "burdens," modified by " their" and "accumulating." 



212 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

VEEB "BE"— ATTRIBUTES, OR QUALITIES. 

God is powerful. 

Gold is very heavy. 

Snow is always cold. 

Harry has been a diligent student. 

Alexander was a great conqueror. 

Write these sentences upon the blackboard. 

These are all Simple Declarative Sentences; the first word in 
each is the Subject, and the remaining words of each constitute 
the Predicate. 

The first attribute or quality here expressed is that of 
power; second, weight; third, temperature, fourth, dili- 
gence in study; fifth, greatness in warfare. 

The Predicate-Verb used in each, it will be observed, is the 
Intransitive Verb be. In every language, from the highly 
classic Greek and Latin down to the simplest and rudest forms 
of articulate expression of the lowest savages, who have only a 
few hundred words in their entire vocabulary, this Verb in some 
form is invariably met with. Some such Verb is an absolute 
and prime necessity even in the very earliest attempts to make 
use of the power of speech. 

Man is, first of all, conscious of existence, and he knows 
not only that he exists, but that all the varied objects in the 
universe about him also exist. It is, therefore, a prime neces- 
sity to be able to say, "I am here," "He is sick," "It is 
stormy," " The grass is green," or " The sun is bright." 

The Latin esse, the French etre, and the German sein are to 
those languages what be is to the English. And that which is 
asserted by the use of this Verb is called an Attribute. 

Def. XXXII. An Attribute is a property, a quality, or a 
distinguishing characteristic expressed by the Verb be, fol- 
lowed by the words defining the Attribute, which always de- 
notes existence in some form. (See sec. 101, page 133.) 

The Progressive Form represents the agent in a state of ac- 
tion or existence, and the Passive shows what is submitted to 
by the Subject; as, "He is residing in Virginia;" "Lincoln 
"was assassinated by Booth." The Verb be is then the Cop- 
ula (see next page), and the remainder of the Predicate stands 
in the relation of an Attribute. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 213 

COPULA AND ATTRIBUTIVE ELEMENTS. 

Compare with preceding page. 
God is powerful. 
Alexander was a great conqueror. 

In order to make the first Sentence resemble the second, it 
must read " God is a powerful Being - ," in which " God" and 
" Being " are identical, just as " Alexander" and " conqueror " 
allude to one and the same person. 

In the first Sentence the Subject is " God," and the Predi- 
cate, " is powerful." 

Subject-Nominative, " God," which is unmodified. 

Predicate -Verb, "is," modified by the Attributive Ele- 
ment, the word " powerful," an Adjective. 

Copula, "is," the Predicate-Verb. 

The second Sentence has for its Subject, " Alexander;" and 
Predicate, " was a great conqueror." 

Subject-Nominative, "Alexander/' unmodified. 

Predicate-Verb, "-was," modified by the Attributive Ele- 
ment, the phrase " a great conqueror," of which the principal 
word is " conqueror," modified by the Adjective Elements " a" 
and "great," both Adjectives. 

Copula, " was," the Predicate-Verb. 

Def. XXXIII. An Attributive Element is a word or phrase 
that is used as a modifier of the Verb be, or any of its equiva- 
lents, to express an Attribute of the Subject, and generally 
consists of one or more Adjectives or Adjective Phrases, with a 
Noun either expressed or understood. 

Def. XXXIV. The Copula is the name given to the Verb be, 
or any equivalent Verb, when used to express existence, by 
connecting an Attributive Element with the Subject. 

When the Verb be, or any one of its equivalents, such as be- 
come, seem, appear, etc., or any Passive Verb of naming, de- 
fining, identifying, etc., is used as a Predicate-Verb, the Sub- 
ject-Nominative of the Sentence and the Noun, expressed 
or understood, which forms the principal word of the Attribute, 
always refer to the same person or thing; as, " The boy will 
become a man;" " He "was called a fool;" " He lived a good 
man, and died a believer." 



214 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

ANALYSIS OF A COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

The adoption of this rule would be a great advantage to the rail- 
road; for it would at once greatly increase the quantity of freight. 

This is a Compound Declarative Sentence, because it contains 
two Co-ordinate Propositions, connected by the Conjunction 
for, making two assertions, commencing with a Capital Letter, 
and terminating with a Period. 

The Subject of the first Proposition is " The adoption of 
this rule;" Predicate, " would be a great advantage to the rail- 
road." 

Subject-Nominative, " adoption." 

Predicate- Verb, "would be." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adjective el., word "the," an Adjective, expressing identity. 

2. Adj. el., prep, phrase "of this rule " (a), defining. 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Attr. el., phrase "a great advantage" (/;). 

2. Adv. el., prep, phrase "to the railroad " (c). 

The Subject of the second Proposition is "it;" Predicate, 
" would at once greatly increase the quantity of freight." 

Subject-Nominative, " it." 

Predicate- Verb, " would increase." 

Subject-Nominative unmodified. 

We may consider would be the Copula, as it connects 
adoption and advantage with each other. 

Modifiers of Predicate- Verb: 

1. Adv. el., prep, phrase "at once," denoting time. 

2. Adv. el., word "greatly," an adverb, expressing intensity. 

3. Obj. el., phrase "the quantity of freight" {d). 

{a) Connective, prep, "of;" prin. word, " rule," modified by adj. el., word 
"this," limiting. 

(b) Prin. word, "advantage," modified by adj. elements, "a" and "great," 

both limiting. 

(c) Connective, prep, "to;" prin. word, " railroad," modified by adj. el., 

word "the," an adj., identifying. 
{d) Prin. word, "quantity," modified, first, by adj. el., " the," expressing 
identity; second, by adj. el., prep, phrase "of freight," defining, of 
which the connective is the prep. " of," and the prin. word " freight,'' 
unmodified. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 215 

ANALYSIS OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

That man who is neither elated by success nor dejected by disap- 
pointment, -whose conduct is not influenced by any change of cir- 
cumstances to deviate from the line of integrity, possesses true for- 
titude of mind. 

This is a Complex Declarative Sentence, because it consists 
of a Principal Proposition, with two Subordinate Clauses, 
affirming something. It commences with a Capital Letter, and 
terminates with a Period. 

Subject, "That man who is neither elated by success nor 
dejected by disappointment, whose conduct is not influenced 
by any change of circumstances to deviate from the line of in- 
tegrity." 

Predicate, " possesses true fortitude of mind." 

Sutyect-Nominative, "man." 

Predicate-Verb, " possesses." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., word " that," a pronominal adjective. 

2. Adj. el., rel. clause "who is neither elated by success nor dejected by dis- 

appointment " (a), descriptive. 

3. Adj. el., rel. clause "whose conduct is not influenced by any change of 

circumstances to deviate from the line of integrity " {b), descriptive. 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Objective element, "true fortitude of mind" (c). 

{a) The connective and subject of the rel. clause is "who," a rel. pron., un- 
modified; Predicate-Verbs, "is elated " and "is dejected;" the former 
is modified by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "by success:" the latter 
by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "by disappointment;" and both are 
connected by the correlative conjunctions " neither — nor." 

(6) Connective, " whose," a rel. pronoun; subject-nominative, "conduct," a 
noun, modified by adj. el., word "whose," the poss. case of "who;" 
Predicate- Verb, "is influenced, " modified, first, by the adv. el., the 
word "not, "an adv.; second, by the prep, phrase "by any change of 
circumstances," of which the connective is "by," and the prin. word 
" change, " modified by the prep, phrase "of circumstances;" and, 
third, by the adv. el., the infinitive phrase "to deviate from the line 
of integrity," of which the infinitive "to deviate" is modified by the 
adv. el., the prep, phrase "from the line of integrity," of which the 
connective is "from," and the prin. word "line," modified, first, by 
the adj. el., the word "the," and second, by the adj. el., the prep, 
phrase "of integrity." 



216 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

(c) Prin. word, "fortitude," a noun, modified, first, by the adj. el., the word 
" true, "an adj.; second, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase "of mind,"of 
which the connective is "of, "and the prin. word "mind," unmodified. 

ANALYSIS OF A HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCE. 

I am a man -who am a Jew, of Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, a citizen of 
no mean city; and, I beseech thee, suffer me to speak unto the peo- 
ple.— Acts XXL, 39. 

This is a Heterogeneous or Mixed Sentence, partly Declar- 
ative and partly Imperative, containing two Co-ordinate Prop- 
ositions, one of which contains a Subordinate Proposition or 
Clause. It commences with a Capital Letter and terminates 
with a Period. 

The first of the two Co-ordinate Propositions, consisting of 
all that precedes the word and, is Complex, containing the Sub- 
ordinate Clause, " who am a Jew;" the second, following and, 
is Compound, and contains the Imperative Clause, " suffer me 
to speak unto the people," as the Object of " beseech." 

The Subject of the first Co-ordinate Proposition is "I;" 
Predicate, "am a man who am a Jew, of Tarsus, a city in 
Cilicia, a citizen of no mean city." 

Subject-Nominative, "I," unmodified. 

Predicate-Verb, " am." 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Attr. el., clause "a man who am a Jew, of Tarsus, a city in Cilicia" (a). 

2. Appositive attr. el., phrase "a citizen of no mean city" (b). 

The Subject of the second Co-ordinate Proposition is "I;" 
Predicate, all that follows. 

Subject-Nominative, "I," unmodified. 
Predicate- Verb, " beseech.' ' 
Modifiers of Predicate- Verb: 

1. Adv. el., prep, phrase "(of)t.hee" (c), denoting discrimination. 

2. Obj. el., imper. clause "suffer me to speak unto the people" ((/), consti- 

tuting his request, 
{a) "Man," the prin. word, is modified, first, by the adj. el., "a," an adjec- 
tive; second, by the adj. el., the clause "who am a Jew," of which 
the connective and also the subject is "who," unmodified; and the 
Predicate- Verb, "am," modified by the attributive element, the word 
"Jew," a noun, which is itself modified by the adj. el., the word "a;" 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 217 

and third, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase "of Tarsus, -a city in Cili- 
cia," of which the connective is the preposition "of," and the prin. 
word " Tarsus," a noun, modified by the appositive adjective element, 
the phrase "a city in Cilicia," of which the prin. word is "city," a 
noun, modified by the adj. el., " a," and the prep, phrase "in Cilicia," 
of which the connective is the prep, "in, "and the prin. word the noun 
"Cilicia," unmodified. 

(b) "Citizen, "the prin. word, is modified, first, by the adj. el., the word "a," 

an adjective, and second, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase " of no 
mean city," of which the connective is the prep, "of," and the modifi- 
ers are the adjective elements, the words "no "and " mean," adjec- 
tives, respectively limiting and describing "city," the prin. word. 

(c) The connective is the prep, "of," elided; and the prin. word, "thee," a 

pronoun, unmodified. 
{(I) The subject of the clause is "thou," elided, unmodified; and the Predi- 
cate-Verb, " suffer, " which is modified, ti-rst, by the obj. el., the word 
"me," a pronoun, and second, by the adv. el., the infinitive phrase 
"to speak unto the people," of which the principal expression is the 
infinitive "to speak," which is modified by the adv. el., the preposi- 
tional phrase " unto the people," of which the connective is the prep, 
"unto," and the prin. word the noun " people, "which is modified by 
the adj. el., the word "the," an adjective. 

It is hard to part. 

This is a Simple Declarative Sentence, because it consists 
of one proposition, asserting something, beginning with a Cap- 
ital Letter and ending with a Period. 

Subject, " It." 

Predicate, "is hard to part." 

Subject-Nominative, " It." 

Predicate- Verb, "is." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 

Adj. el., infinitive "to part," explanatory of "It." 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb: 
Attributive el., word "hard," an adjective, expressing/ee^r/. 

Copula, " is." 

Sentences similar to the last example may be found on page 
95, and others of a similar structure should be prepared for , 
analysis. All the sentences in Part I. are suitable for similar 
exercises, and special examples may be prepared. 
10 



218 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

EXAMPLE OF SYNTHETICAL CONSTKUCTION. 

A description of the modifying elements contained in this 
exercise may be found on the following page, and the analysis 
of the complete sentence, number 13, on page 220. Similar 
exercises in Synthesis should frequently be written by the class. 

1. Fishes swim. 

2. The fishes swim. 

3. The fishes swim noiselessly. 

4. The little fishes swim noiselessly. 

5. The little fishes swim noiselessly near the surface. 

6. The little fishes in the stream swim noiselessly near the 

surface. 

7. The little fishes in the stream swim noiselessly near the 

surface of the water. 

8. The little fishes in the stream, seeking their prey, swam 

noiselessly near the surface of the water. 

9. The little fishes in the stream, seeking their prey, swim 

noiselessly near the surface of the water to catch the 
flies. 

10. The little fishes in the stream, seeking their prey, and anx- 

ious to avoid their enemies, swim noiselessly near the 
surface of the water to catch the flies. 

11. The little fishes in the stream, seeking their prey, and anx- 

ious to avoid their enemies, swim noiselessly near the 
surface of the water to catch the flies that venture in 
such dangerous places. 

12. The little fishes that live in the stream, seeking their prey, 

and anxious to avoid their enemies, swim noiselessly near 
the surface of the water to catch the flies that venture in 
such dangerous places. 

13. The little fishes that live in the stream, seeking their prey, 

and anxious to avoid enemies of their own kind, swim 
noiselessly near the surface of the water to catch the un- 
wary flies that carelessly venture in such dangerous 
places; and thus they leap from the frying-pan into the 
fire, and become the prey of those other more vigilant if 
not more voracious enemies, the birds. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 219 

EXPLANATION OF PKECEDING PAGE. 

1. This is the simplest form of a sentence; the Subject con- 

sists of but one word, " fishes," unmodified, and the 
Predicate also of one word, " swim," unmodified. 

2. An adjective element, the word " the," an Adjective, is here 

added to the Subject. 

3. The Predicate now has a Modifier, the adverbial element, 

the word " noiselessly," an Adverb. 

4. A second adjective element has next been added to the 

•Subject, consisting of the word " little," an Adjective. 

5. The prepositional phrase, " near the surface," constitutes 

another adverbial element in the Predicate. 
G. Another prepositional phrase, " in the stream," is used 
here as the third adjective element in the Subject. 

7. A third prepositional phrase is added to the first, so as to 

modify the principal word in the latter, as an adj. el. 

8. We now have another adjective element in the Subject, the 

participial phrase, " seeking their prey." 

9. The infinitive phrase, "to catch the unwary flies," becomes 

the third adverbial element in the Predicate. 

10. An infinitive phrase, introduced by an Adjective, " anxious 

to avoid their enemies," is the fifth adjective element in 
the Subject, connected by the Conjunction " and." 

11. Here the principal word of the infinitive phrase of the 

Predicate, " flies," is modified by an adjective element, 
the relative clause " that venture in such dangerous 
places," which itself contains a Subject and a' modified 
Predicate. 

12. Instead of the prepositional phrase, "in the stream," as the 

third adjective element modifying the Subject, we now 
have the relative clause, " that live in the stream," sub- 
stituted. 
18. Here " enemies," instead of having the word " their" as a 
modifier, has another adjective element used, the prepo- 
sitional phrase, " of their own kind." The word "care- 
lessly " is also used as an adverbial element to modify 
the Verb " venture," and an additional clause has been 
combined with the original one. 



220 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE No. 13, PAGE 218. 

This is a Mixed Declarative Sentence, consisting of one Com- 
plex Proposition with two Subordinate Relative Clauses, and 
one Simple Proposition with a Compound Predicate. It begins 
with a Capital Letter and ends with a Period. The two princi- 
pal Propositions are connected by the Conjunction " and." 

The Subject of the Complex Proposition is " The little fishes 
that live in the stream, seeking their prey, and anxious to avoid 
enemies of their own kind;" and the Predicate, " swim noise- 
lessly near the surface of the water to catch the unwary flies 
that carelessly venture in such dangerous places." 

Subject-Nominative, l< Fishes." 

Predicate- Verb, " swim." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., word "the," an adjective, expressing identity. 

2. Adj. el., word "little," an adjective, descriptive. 

3. Adj. el., rel. clause "that live in the stream" (a), restrictive. 

4. Adj. el., participial phrase "seeking their prey " (b), expressing purpose. 

5. Adj. el., infin. phrase "anxious to avoid enemies of their own kind" {<■), 

connected by " and," a conjunction, and expressing purpose. 

Modifiers of Predicate- Yerb : 

1. Adv. el., word "noiselessly," an adverb, denoting manner. 

2. Adv. el., prep, phrase "near the surface of the water" (d), denoting 

place. 

3. Adv. el., infin. phrase "to catch the unwary flies that carelessly venture 

in such dangerous places " (e), denoting purjjose. 

The Subject of the Simple Proposition is they; and the 
Predicate, "thus leap from the frying-pan into the fire, and 
become the prey of those other more vigilant if not more vora- 
cious enemies, the birds." 

Subject-Nominative, " they," unmodified. 

Predicate-Verbs, "leap" and " become," connected by the 
Conjunction " and." 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb "leap:" 

1. Adv. el., word "thus," an adverb, denoting manner. 

2. Adv. elements, prep, phrases "from the frying-pan" and "into the 

fire" (f), both denoting place. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 221 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb "become:" 

1. Attr. el., phrase "the prey of those other more vigilant if not more vora- 
cious enemies, the birds " (7). 

(a) Connective and subject-nominative, rel. pron. "that," unmodified; predi- 
cate-verb, "live," modified by the adverbial element, the prep, phrase 
"in the stream," of which the connective is the prep, "in," and the 
prin. word " stream," modified by the adjective "the." 

{b) Prin. word, participle "seeking," modified by the objective element, the 
jmrase "their prey," of which the prin. word is "prey," modified by 
the adj. el., the pronoun "their." 

[<•) Prin. word, adj. "anxious," modified by the infin. phrase "to avoid ene- 
mies of their own kind," explanatory of the anxiety, in which the in- 
finitive "to avoid " is modified by the obj. el., the word " enemies," a 
noun, which has an adj. el., "of their own kind," to modify it, con- 
taining the connective " of " and the prin. word "kind," modified by 
the adjective el., the words "their own," possessive of the pronoun 
"they." 

('/) Connective, prep, "near;" prin. word, "surface," modified, first, by the 
adj. el., word "thee;" second, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase "of the 
water," of which "of "is connective and "water" the prin. word, 
modified by the adj. el., the word "the." 

(e) The infinitive "to catch " is modified by the obj. el., " the unwary flies 
that carelessly venture in such dangerous places," of which the prin. 
word is "flies," modified, first, by the adj. el., the word "the;" sec- 
ond, by the adj. el., the word "unwary," an adj.; and third, by the 
adj. el., the rel. clause "that carelessly venture in such dangerous 
places," of which the connective and subject is "that," a rel. pronoun, 
and predicate-verb "venture," which is modified, first, by the adv. el., 
the word "carelessly," an adv., and second, by the prep, phrase "in 
such dangerous places," of which "in "is the connective and "places" 
the prin. word, modified by the adj. elements, the words "such " and 
" dangerous,'' adjectives. 

(/) Connectives, "from" and "into;" prin. words, " frying-pan " and "fire," 
each modified by adj. el., word "the," an adj. 

(,7) Prin. word, "prey, "a noun, modified, first, by the adj. el., the word 
"the," and second, by the adj. el., prep, phrase "of those other more 
vigilant if not more voracious enemies, the birds," of which "of "is 
the connective and "enemies" the prin. word, modified, first, by the 
adj. el., the word "those," a pronom. adj.; second, by the adj. el., the 
expression "more vigilant," an adj.; third, by the adj. el., connected 
by "if," the expression "more voracious," an adj., modified by the 
adv. el., the adv. "not;" and fourth, by the appositive element, "the 
birds," of which "birds " is the prin. word, modified by the adjective 
"the." 



222 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

ANALYSIS OF A MIXED SENTENCE. 

When the boy is well, and is out every day playing with you, 
flying kites, spinning tops, shooting marbles, catching fish, making 
mud pies, bragging about his father, and telling those shadowy, 
puffy legends about things of which he is entirely ignorant, he is still 
merely your barefooted, familiar, every-day companion; but when 
death comes, how terrible it is to think, in unspoken words, that 
these grown-up men and women, who seem as powerful as giants to 
you, and who speak and act with such confidence and authority, 
are so utterly helpless and powerless to avert the approach of the 
King of Terrors! 

This is a Heterogeneous or Mixed Sentence, containing in 
the first part two Independent Declarative Clauses, connected 
by when, one of which is Complex; and in the second part, 
which is connected with the first by but, one Declarative and 
one Exclamatory Clause, connected by "when. The Exclama- 
tory Clause contains two Subordinate Propositions. The Sen- 
tence commences with a Capital Letter and ends with an Ex- 
clamation Point. 

The Subject of the first Principal Proposition is ' f the boy;" 
and the Predicate, which is Compound, consists of the words 
following, ending with " ignorant." 

SubjecJ-Nominative, "boy." 

Predicate- Verbs, " is," " is playing," " (is) flying," " (is) 
spinning," "(is) shooting," "(is) catching," "(is) making," 
" (is) bragging," and " (is) telling." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 
1. Adj. el., the word "the," identifying "boy." 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verbs : 

1. " Is " is modified by adv. el., word "well," an adv. 

2. "Is playing" is modified, first, by adv. el., word "out," an adv.; second, 

by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "(on) every day," of which the con- 
nective is "on" (understood) and prin. word " day," modified by the 
adj. el., word " every," limiting it; and third, by the adv. el., the prep. 
phrase " with you." 

3. "(Is) flying," by the obj. el., the word "kites," a noun. 

4. "(Is) spinning," by the obj. el., the word " tops," a noun. 

5. "(Is) shooting," by the obj. el., the word " marbles," a noun. 
0. "(Is) catching," by the obj. el., the word "fish," a noun. 

7. "(Is) making," by obj. el., word "mud-pies," a noun. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 223 

8. "(Is) bragging," by the adv. el., prep, phrase "about his father" (a). 

9. "(Is) telling," by obj. el., "those shadowy, puffy legends " {b), and the 

adv. el., "about things of which he is entirely ignorant" (c). 

The second Principal Proposition in the first part has for its 
Subject, " he;" and its Predicate, " is still merely your bare- 
footed, familiar, every-day companion." 

Subject-Nominative, "he," unmodified. 

Predicate-Verb, "is." 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Adv. el., word " still," an adv. 

2. Adv. el., word "merely," an adv. 

3. Attr. el., the phrase "your barefooted, familiar, every-day compan- 

ion"^). 

The Declarative Clause of the second part has for its Sub- 
ject, "death;" and its Predicate, " comes;" both unmodified. 

The Exclamatory Clause has for its Subject, "it;" and its 
Predicate, " is how terrible to think," and all the remainder of 
the Sentence. 

Subject-Nominative, "it." 

Predicate-Verb, "is." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., prep, clause "to think, in unspoken words, that," etc., to end 
of sentence (e). 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb : 

1. Attr. el., the phrase " how terrible" (/). 

(a) Connective, prep, "about;" prin. word, " father," modified by the adj. 
el., the word " his," a pronoun. 

(6) Prin. word is the object "legends," whose first, second, and third modi- 
fiers are the words "those," " shadowy," and "puffy," adjectives. 

(c) Connective, prep, "about;" prin. word, "things," a noun, which is mod- 

ified by the adj. el., the rel. clause " of which he is entirely ignorant," 
whose subject-nominative is "he" and predicate-verb " is," modified 
by the attr. el., the phrase " entirely ignorant of which," in which the 
attributive-adjective is " ignorant, "and is modified by the adv. el., the 
word "entirely," an adverb, and by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "of 
which," whose connective is the prep, "of," and the prin. word, the 
rel. pron. "which." 

(d) Prin. word, the noun "companion," modified by the four adjectives, 

"your," "barefooted," " familiar, " and "every-day." 



224 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

(e) Infinitive, "to think," modified, first, by the adv. el., the prep, phrase 
"in unspoken words;" second, by the obj. el., connected by "that," a 
conjunction, "these grown-up roen and women, who seem as powerful 
as giants to you, and who speak and act with such confidence and au- 
thority, are so utterly helpless and powerless to avert the approach of 
the King of Terrors." 

(/) The attributive-adjective is " terrible," modified by the adv. el., the word 
" how," an adv. 

The Objective Clause has for its Subject, " these grown-up 
men and women, who seem as powerful as giants to you, and 
who speak and act with such confidence and authority;" and its 
Predicate, " are so utterly helpless and pow r erless to avert the 
approach of the King of Terrors." 

Subject-Nominative, "men " and " women," Compound. 

Predicate-Verb, " are." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., word " these," a pronominal adj. 

2. Adj. el., word "grown-up," a participial adj. 

3. Adj. el., rel. clause " who seem as powerful as giants to you " (g). 

4. Adj. el., rel. clause "who speak and act with such confidence and au- 

thority " (A). 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Attr. el., "so utterly helpless" (i). 

2. Attr. el., " powerless to avert the approach of the King of Terrors " (j). 
{g) Subject-Nominative and connective, "who," a rel. pron., unmodified; 

predicate-verb, " seem," modified, first, by the attrib. el. , the word 
" powerful," and second, by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "to you," 
connected by " as — as " with " giants (seem)." 

(h) Subject-nominative and connective, "who," a rel. pronoun, unmodified; 
predicate-verbs, "speak" and " act," compound, modified by the adv. 
el., the prep, phrase "with such confidence and authority," of which 
the connective is "with" and the prin. words "confidence " and "au- 
thority," which are modified by the adj. el., the word " such," a pro- 
nominal adj., and connected by "and." 

(£) The prin. word of the attribute is elided, and modified by the adj. el., the 
adj. " helpless," -which is itself modified by the adv. el., "utterly," 
which is modified by the adv. el., the word "so," an adv. 

(j) The attr. adj. " powerless " is modified by the infill, phrase "to avert the 
approach of the King of Terrors," in which the object of the infinitive, 
"approach," is modified, first, by the adj. el., the word "the," an adj. ; 
second, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase " of the King of Terrors," 
whose prin. word, " King," is modified by the adj. elements, "the" 
and " of Terrors." 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 225 

MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES. 
Always perform what you promise. 

This is a Complex Imperative Sentence, because it contains a 
Subordinate Clause as a modifier of the Predicate, and indi- 
cates a requirement. 

The Subject is not expressed. The Predicate is all that 
portion which is expressed. 

Subject-Nominative, "You" (understood), unmodified. 

Predicate-Verb, "perform." 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Adv. el., the word "always," an adverb. 

2. Obj. el., the rel. clause "what you promise," of which the connective is 

"what;" the subject-nominative, "you;" the predicate-verb, "prom- 
ise," which is modified by the obj. el., the word "what," which in its 
compound structure contains the object. 

Oh ! there is a humming-bird beside the rose! 

This is a Simple Exclamatory Sentence, because it gives ex- 
pression to a single thought in the form of an exclamation, in- 
troduced by the Interjection Oh ! 

The Subject is " a humming-bird;" the Predicate, "is there 
beside the rose." 

Subject-Nominative, " humming-bird." 

Predicate-Verb, "is." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 
1. Adj. el., the word "a," an adjective. 

Modifiers of Predicate-Verb : 

1. Adv. el., the word "there," an adverb. 

2. Adv. el., the prep, phrase "beside the rose," of which the connective is 

" beside," a preposition, and the prin. word, "rose," a noun, modified 
by the adj. el., the word "the," an adjective. 

It has been said that "a wise son maketh a glad father." 

This is a Complex Declarative Sentence, because it asserts 
something, and contains an explanatory clause in the Subject. 

The Subject is, "It, that ' a wise son maketh a glad father;' " 
and the Predicate, " has been said." 

Subject-Nominative, "It." 

Predicate- Verb, " has been said," unmodified. 



226 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 

1. The explanatory clause, connected by the connective "that," in apposi- 
tion with "It," "a wise son maketh a glad father" (a). 

(a) The subject-nominative of the clause is "son," and the predicate-verb is 
"maketh," equivalent of be. The subject-nominative is modified, 
first, by the adj. el., the word "a," an adjective, and second, by the 
adj. el., the word "wise," an adjective. The predicate-verb is modi- 
fied by the attributive el., the phrase "a glad father," of which the 
attributive-nominative is the word "father," a noun, modified by the 
adjective elements, the words "a" and "glad," adjectives. 

To neglect -what we know to be our duty is to deliberately waste 
the material from which the web of happiness is woven. 

This is a Complex Declarative Sentence, because it asserts 
something, and contains a dependent modifying Clause in the 
Subject, and another in the Predicate. 

The Subject is "To neglect what we know to be our duty;" 
and the Predicate, " is to deliberately waste the material from 
which the web of happiness is woven/' 

Subject-Nominative, the Infinitive, "To neglect." 

Predicate-Verb, " is." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Obj. el., the rel. clause "what we know to be our duty " (a). 
Modifier of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Attr. el., the infin. clause "to deliberately waste the material from 
which the web of happiness is woven " (b). 

(n) Connective, the word "what," a comp. rel. pron. ; subject-nominative, 
the word "we," a per. pron., unmodified; predicate-verb, the word 
"know," which is modified, first, by the obj. el., the word "what," 
which in its compound structure contains the object of " know" as 
well as of " neglect;" second, by the attr. el., the infin. phrase "to be 
our duty," of which the connective is the infinitive, and the attribu- 
tive-objective the [word " duty," modified by the adj. el., the word 
"our," a per. pron, in the possessive case. 

(/>) The infinitive, "to waste," is modified, first, by the adv. el., the word 
" deliberately," an adverb; and second, by the obj. el., the clause "the 
material from which the web of happiness is woven," of which the priii. 
word is the object, "material," which is modified, first, by the adj. 
el., the word "the," an adjective, and second, b} r the adj. el., the rel. 
clause "from which the web of happiness is woven," in which the con- 
nective is the prep, "from," which, with its object, the rel. pronoun 
" which, " forms an adv. el., the only modifier of the predicate-verb "is 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 227 

woven;" the subject-nominative, "web," is modified by the adj. el., 
the word "the," an adj., and second, by the adj. el., the prep, phrase 
"of happiness," of which the connective is "of," and the prin. word, 
"happiness." 

"Waiting for something to turn up" was the " occupation " of 
Micawber, one of the conspicuous characters in Dickens' " David 
Copperfield. ' ' 

This is a Simple Declarative Sentence, because it contains 
only one Proposition, asserting something. 

The Subject is " Waiting for something to turn up;" and the 
Predicate, "was the 'occupation' of Micawber, one of the 
conspicuous characters in Dickens' ' David Copperfield.' " 

Subject-Nominative, "Waiting." 

Predicate- Verb, "was." 

Modifier of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., prep, phrase " for something to turn up" (a). 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb: 

1. Attr. el., "the 'occupation' of Micawber, one of the conspicuous char- 
acters in Dickens' ' David Copperfield' " {b). 

(a) Connective, prep, "for;" prin. word, " something, " an indef. adj. pron., 

modified by the adj. el., the infin. phrase "to turn up," of which the 
infinitive " to turn " is modified by the adv. el., the adv. " up." 

(b) The prin. word in the attribute is "occupation," a noun, modified, first, 

by the adj. el., the word "the," an adj., and second, by the adj. el., 
the prep, phrase " of Micawber, one of the conspicuous characters in 
Dickens' 'David Copperfield,'" which is equivalent to the possessive 
case of "Micawber;" the prin. word of this phrase, " Micawber, " is 
modified by the appositive phrase ' ' one of the conspicuous characters 
in'Dickens' 'David Copperfield,' " in which the prin. word, "one," is 
modified by the adj. el., the prep, phrase " of the conspicuous charac- 
ters in Dickens' ' David Copperfield,' " whose prin. word, ," charac- 
ters," is modified by the adj. elements, the words "the" and "con- 
spicuous," adjectives, and also by the adj. el., the prep, phrase "in 
Dickens' 'David Copperfield,' "in which the prin. word, the title "Da- 
vid Copperfield," is modified by the adj. el., the noun "Dickens'," in 
the possessive case. 

The word was may also be considered as the Copula, or 
connecting word of the two ideas contained in the complete 
thought. Also refer to Def. XXXI., page 209, for explanation 
of (b). 



228 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

SENTENCE FKOM PAGE 66. 

This vast power or force, which is now utilized in moving a pon- 
derous steam-engine, was stored up in the coal for ages. 

This is a Complex Declarative Sentence, because it makes an 
assertion, and its Subject contains a dependent modifying 
Clause. 

The Subject is " This vast power or force, which is now util- 
ized in moving a ponderous steam-engine;" and the Predicate, 
" was stored up in the coal for ages. 5 ' 

Subject-Nominative, "power." 

Predicate-Verb, " was stored." 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., the word "this," a pronominal adjective. 

2. Adj. el., the word "vast," an adjective. 

3. Appositive el., the word "force," a noun, connected by "or." 

4. Adj. el., rel. clause "which is now utilized in moving a ponderous steam- 

engine "(a). 

Modifiers of Predicate- Verb : 

1- Adv. el., the word "up," an adverb. 

2. Adv. el., the prep, phrase "in the coal " {b). 

3. Adv. el., the prep, phrase "for ages" (c). 

(a) Connective and subject-nominative, " which," a rel. pronoun; predicate- 

verb, "is utilized," which is modified, first, by the adv. el., the word 
"now," an adverb, and second, by the adv. el., the prep, phrase "in 
moving a ponderous steam-engine," of which the connective is "in," a 
prep., and the prin. word, "moving, "a participle, modified by the obj. 
el., the phrase "a ponderous steam-engine," of which the prin. word, 
"steam-engine," is modified by the adj. elements, "a" and "pon- 
derous," adjectives. 

(b) Connective, the prep, "in;" prin. word, " coal," a noun, modified by the 

adj. el., the word " the," an adjective. 

(c) Connective, the prep, "for;" prin. word, the noun "ages," unmodified. 

SENTENCE FKOM PAGE 81. 
Do as quickly as possible -whatever you find to do each day. 

This is a Complex Imperative Sentence, because it expresses 
an entreaty, and its Predicate contains two dependent modify- 
ing Clauses. 

The Subject is "you," not expressed; and the Predicate, 
all that appears in the printed Sentence. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 229 

Subject-Nominative, " you" (understood). 
Predicate-Verb, " do." 
Modifiers of Predicate-Verb : 

1. Adv. el., the clause " as quickly as (it is) possible " (a). 

2. Obj. el.', the rel. clause " whatever you find to do each day " (b). 

{a) Connective, the first "as;" prin. word, "quickly," an adverb, modified 
by the clause "as (it is) possible," of which the connective is "as," 
and the prin. word " possible," an attr. el., modifying the verb "is," 
understood. 
(6) Connective and object, the word " whatever," a rel. pron., which is mod- 
ified by the clause "you find whatever to do each day," of which the 
subject is " you," unmodified; and the predicate-verb, "find," modi- 
fied, first, by the obj. el., "whatever, "a comp. rel. pron., containing two 
objective elements combined; second, by the adv. el., the infin. phrase 
"to do;" and third, by the adv. el., the prep, phrase " (during) each 
day," of which the connective is the prep. " during" understood, and 
the prin. word, the noun "day," modified by the adj. el., the word 
" each," a pronominal adjective. 
A man of culture and exalted intellect, who makes home happy 
by his presence, is like the sun retiring in the west; he remits his ra- 
diant splendor, but retains his magnitude. 

This is a Mixed Declarative Sentence, consisting of two Prin- 
cipal Clauses; the first is Complex, containing a Subordinate 
Proposition in the Subject; the second is Simple, with a Com- 
pound Predicate. 

The Subject of the first Principal Clause is "A man of cul- 
ture and exalted intellect, who makes home happy by his pres- 
ence;" and the Predicate, "is like the sun retiring in the west/' 

Subject-Nominative, " man." 

Predicate- Verb, "is/' 

Modifiers of Subject-Nominative: 

1. Adj. el., word "a," an adjective. 

2. Adj. el., prep, phrase "of culture." 

3. Adj. el., prep, phrase " (of) exalted intellect," connected by " and." 

4. Adj. el., rel. clause "who makes home happy by his presence." 

Modifier of Predicate-Verb: 
1. Adv. el., the prep, phrase " like the sun retiring in the west." 

The Subject of the second Principal Clause is he; and the 
Predicate, " remits his radiant splendor, but retains his mag- 
nitude." 

Subject-Nominative, "he," unmodified. 



230 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

Predicate- Verbs, " remits" and " retains." 
Modifier of Predicate- Verb " remits:" 
1. Obj. el., " his radiant splendor. " 

[Further details to be supplied by the student.) 

FORMULAS FOR ANALYSIS. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

1. Whether Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, or 

Imperative. 

2. Subject. 

3. Predicate. 

4. Subject-Nominative. 

5. Predicate- Verb. 

6. Modifiers of Subject-Nominative. 

7. Modifiers of Predicate-Verb. 

8. Description of Modifiers, by references. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

1. Type of Sentence, as in Sinrple ones. 

2. Specification of the Co-ordinate Clauses. 

3. Analysis of first Proposition, as in Simple. 

4. Analysis of second Proposition, as in Simple. 

5. Description of Modifiers, by references. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

1. Type of Sentence, as in Simple ones. 

2. Specification of Subject as modified. 

3. Specification of Predicate as modified. 

4. Subject-Nominative and Predicate-Verb. 

5. Modifying Clauses of Subject. 

6. ModifyiDg Clauses of Predicate. 

7. Description of Modifiers by references. 

HETEROGENEOUS OR MIXED SENTENCES. 

1. Type of Principal Clauses. 

2. Specification of Subject of first Clause. 

3. Specification of Predicate of first Clause. 

4. Same for all the Principal Clauses. 

5. With each Principal Clause give Modifiers of Subject 

and Predicate. 

6. Description of Modifiers by references. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 231 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation, as we have seen (page 195), is the name given 
to the art of particularizing the details of expression. 

Modern authors evince an unmistakable tendency toward the 
utmost simplicity in punctuation. According to the best 
writers, the less we attempt to punctuate, the better. It is, 
however, necessary, as far as possible, to give some attention to 
the more conspicuous instances in which judicious punctuation 
is desirable. In addition, therefore, to the ten Rules on page 
195, which only need illustration before primary classes, we call 
attention to the following additional Eules, under which Ex- 
amples are given for Exercises in Dictation, to be punctuated 
and supplied with Capital Letters by the class. 

Eule XI. The Independent Clauses in a Compound Sen- 
tence, if very elaborate, may be separated by a Comma, and if 
there is no special Connective-word, by a Semicolon. 

1. A miser hoards money, a covetous man worships it, but a 

wise man uses it. 

2. Every moment of time is precious; we should lose no oppor- 

tunity of making those around us happy, and by this 
means increasing our own happiness. 

3. Never give expression to a thought in rude and uncouth Ian-. 

guage; it is better to reconstruct a sentence several times 
than to utter it in a careless manner. 

4. A man of culture and exalted intellect, who makes home 

happy by his presence, is like the sun retiring in the west; 
he remits his splendor, while he retains his magnitude; he 
pleases more, though he dazzles less. 

5. (See sentence, page 222.) 

Rule XII. When a series of Nouns of similar construction 
have modifying words accompanying them, each one as mod- 
ified, except the last, must be followed by a Comma. 

1. Kind words, gentle manners, a pleasing address, an'd an ac- 

complished education are ornaments of character that pos- 
sess greater value than the jewels of a crown. 

2. Peter the Great, Peter the Hermit, and Peter the Fisherman 

made themselves immortal. 



232 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

3. The crimson cloudlets of sunset, the gorgeous hues of the 

birds and flowers, the gentle summer breezes, and the 
rippling streams flowing over sands of gold made it a 
perfect paradise. 

4. His death resulted from exposure to the cold, want of food, 

use of improper remedies, and neglect. 

Kule XII. Phrases transposed from the natural order, ex- 
planatory Modifiers in apposition or connected by " or " as 
equivalent, independent words, such as Interjections and terms 
of address, a Participle having Modifiers when used as an Ad- 
jective but not restrictive, an Infinitive that precedes the word 
that leads to its use, a direct quotation forming part of a Sen- 
tence when not formally introduced, an Attributive Element 
consisting of a Noun-Clause, modifying Phrases and Clauses 
that are not directly restrictive, the members of a Compound 
Predicate when long and of different construction, and all 
words, Phrases, or Clauses that would be ambiguous without 
punctuation, require the Comma. 

1. Before you begin, allow me to make one or two remarks. 

2. This man, an uneducated mechanic, became one of the most 

eminent statesmen in the country. 

3. Chloride of sodium, or common salt, is obtained in large 

quantities from the waters of the ocean. 

4. "0 man, degenerate man, offend no more!" 

5. Crafty demagogues, deceiving the people, are the most dan- 

gerous men in the arena of politics. 

6. Axles revolving with the wheels are most suitable for rail- 

road cars in rapid motion. 

7. To prevent the bank from falling away, he constructed a 

framework of heavy timber. 

8. The boy shouted, " Save me from drowning! " 

9. The result was, the man refused to buy it. 

10. Any man over twenty years of age, with some previous ex- 

perience, can find employment. 

11. Metals, which are distinguished by their luster when pol- 

ished, make the best ornaments. 

12. Metals that rust are not durable. 

13. Clocks that will not keep time are useless. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 233 

14. Clocks, which measure time, are indispensable in a civil- 

ized community. 

15. He has continued in that situation for eight consecutive 

years, and will probably retain it during his lifetime. 

16. The boy, with one arm, lifted two hundred pounds. 

17. Any man, with sufficient influence, can become a member. 

18. The horse, in the stable, does not require to be tied. 
Kule XIII. Words used in pairs must be separated by 

commas. 

1. Night and day, summer and winter, seed-time and harvest 

follow each other with great regularity. 

2. Husband and wife, brother and sister, father and son, 

mother and daughter must part at last. 

3. We do, solemnly and sincerely, jointly and severally, cove- 

nant and agree to keep and perform, without equivocation 
or evasion, this contract or agreement. 

4. Pen and ink, powder and ball, cable and anchor, pick and 

shovel, press and pulpit all have their spheres of action 

and influence. 
Rule XIV. In a succession of Co-ordinate Clauses, where the 
ideas presented do not closely resemble each other, or where each 
Clause contains Commas, the Semicolon should be employed. 

1. The sun had already been down several hours; the streets of 

the city were almost deserted; silence reigned supreme; 
everything seemed to favor his design. 

2. It may require hard study and constant application, and 

many sacrifices may be necessary before it shall have been 
accomplished; but it will become a monument of perse- 
verance, and will bring its own reward. 
Rule XV. When illustrations or examples are introduced 
after a general rule or principle, especially if they follow as, 
thus, namely, viz., i. e., that is, e. g., for example, or in 
other words, the Semicolon should be used before each of 
these expressions, and a Comma after it. 

1. A final y, when preceded by a consonant, is changed to i in 

the Plural; as, story, stories. 

2. Show the omission of one or more letters b} r inserting an 

apostrophe; thus, resp'y, aecept'ce. 



234 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

3. One word was spelled incorrectly; namely, ballanee. 

4. I shall give two exceptions to the rule for changing f into V; 

viz., proofs, gulfs. 

5. The club was very large; i. e.,the one that I joined last win- 

ter. 

6. Part of the water had become solid; that is, it was frozen. 

7. Analogy is not always a safe guide to pronunciation; e. g., 

through, trough, tough. 

8. He does not always pronounce the words correctly; for ex- 

ample, he pronounced hiccough after the same manner 
as cough. 

9. He does not always tell the truth; in other words, he lies. 

Kule XVI. In Compound or Mixed Sentences, in which the 
sense is complete in the preceding Clause, a Colon may be used 
to separate it from the following one, providing no Conjunction 
is expressed; and a Semicolon, if there is a Connective. 

1. Do not be disappointed if you never attain to perfection, or 

see it in others: there is no sach thing in existence. 

2. Oh, keep my soul and deliver me: let me not be ashamed; 

for I put my trust in thee! — Psalms, XXV., 20. 

Kule XVII. Use a Colon after the expressions, as follows, 
following, and to wit. 

1. The sign of equality is used as follows: 4-|-5 = 9; read, 

Four plus five equal to nine. 

2. Spell the following words correctly: Lillies, billious, ine- 

ligible, seperate, differance. 

3. He sold all these articles, to wit: One cook stove, two wash 

tubs, and three tables. 

Rule XVIII. Use a Colon after the last line of the compli- 
mentary address in a letter, as shown in the Correspondence in 
Part VI. 

Rule XIX. A Colon should be used to separate the divisions 
of a Sentence, if these already contain Semicolons; also, before 
the enumeration of details or particulars, and before a quota- 
tion when formally introduced. 

1. "We called in a skillful physician; we applied such remedies 
as were at hand; we tried to excite the circulation by 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 235 

friction; everything in our power was done to restore 
consciousness: it was all to no purpose; for lie was dead. 

2. I studied the most important rules of Arithmetic: Common 

Fractions, Decimals, Percentage, Proportion, Evolution, 
Series. 

3. This is the best definition of The Great Unseen Power that 

is anywhere given in Scripture: " God is a Spirit." 

Rule XX. Use the following characters in Punctuation for 
the purposes indicated: 

1. Any incidental remark, inserted for a special purpose, but 
not essential to the construction (that is, whose omission from 
the Sentence would make equally good sense), must be included 
in Parenthesis Marks ( ). Modern writers substitute Commas 
for Parenthesis Marks. 

2. The absence of one or more letters is denoted by an Apos- 
trophe placed where the omission occurs; as, sh'pm't for ship- 
ment; o'er for over ('). 

3. To show that an omitted expression is interlined, use a 

not 

Caret; as, "He is A here." 

4. When part of the last word in a line must be written in 
the next line, the division must be made at the end of a syllable, 
and shown by a Hyphen, which must be placed at the end of the 
first part, and never at the beginning of the part carried be- 
low, as in the above line. The Hyphen is also used to connect 
the parts of Compound Words and Phrases; as, " The camp- 
meeting was conducted in a go-as-you-please manner " (-). 

5. When a sudden and abrupt change — more particularly if 
it is unexpected — takes place, it is preceded and followed by a 
Dash (— ). 

G. When an objectionable word must be reported, only the 
first and last letters, or none at all, are used with an Ellipsis; 
thus, d — 1, for devil ( — ). 

7. In Scripture, a change of subject is indicated by a Para- 
graph Mark (^f). This character is now only used in proof- 
reading. 

8. In order to make convenient divisions of the subject-mat- 
ter of a book, the Section Mark is frequently used besides 
numbers (§). 



236 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

9. When words are quoted from some other source, tbe 
writer should use Quotation Marks (" "). These should, how- 
ever, occur as often as the quoted words are used, even if they 
require many repetitions. Some writers, indeed, as in the New 
York Tribune, make each line of the quoted passage begin (but 
not terminate) with a pair of the Quotation Marks, and conclude 
the final line with another pair. 

10. Anything very remarkable is made more conspicuous by 
preceding it with an Index (SKg^). 

11. When each of two vowels written together is in a sepa- 
rate syllable, this fact must be indicated by placing over the 
second vowel a Diaeresis Mark; thus, readjust, coincide ("). 

12. When an expression that already contains Parenthesis 
Marks is to be again inclosed in the same way, Brackets must 
be employed [ ]. 

13. A further inclosure can be made by employing Double 
Parenthesis Marks, or Braces ( \ \). 

14. Marginal references or foot notes may be referred to by 
using the Asterisk (*), Obelisk or Dagger (f), Double Dagger 
(J), Parallel (||), small figures, or letters. 

15. The omission oi unnecessary words from a quotation is 
shown by several Asterisks (* * *). 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax is the proper arrangement of words in the construc- 
tion of Sentences, according to the established custom and 
usage of the best known authors. The English Language hav- 
ing come down to us as a complicated combination of Anglo- 
Saxon, Danish, French, Latin, Greek, and other tongues, it 
presents incongruities and irregularities not to be found in an 
original mother tongue. This diversity of sources is what in- 
vests it with great difficulty in its acquisition, robs it of the 
classical character, renders its orthography and orthoepy incon- 
sistent and sometimes absurd, and makes a work like the pres- 
ent one, which is devoted more to construction and analysis 
than to abstract definitions, more successful in imparting a 
practical knowledge of English than those that pay most at- 
tention to abstractions and unapplied definitions. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 237 

The following Examples are intended to be used as Dictation 
Exercises, as shown in the Introduction : 

RULE I. A Finite Verb must correspond in Person and Number 
with its Subject-Nominative. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Thence proceedeth true wisdom and understanding. 

2. Says I, " Father, the worm ought not to have ventured out 

so early." (Change the Tense.) 

3. The waters of the sea is of vast extent. 

4. All the precautions that we had taken was of no use; the 

company was all drenched with rain. 

5. A variety of studies afford pleasure. 

6. Some portions of the lecture was very interesting. 

7. There's two or three errors in your exercise. 

8. The terrors of the darkness was as dreadful as the silence 

of the tomb. 

9. Nothing but frivolous and childish fancies fill the minds of 

some people. 

10. Their own unworthiness prevent many from making them- 

selves friends. 

11. The forest of " Big Trees," of Calaveras, have stood for 

many centuries, and are likely to stand for many more. 

12. Indolence and carelessness, more than any other cause, is 

destroying his usefulness. 

13. Every phenomenon that w r e witness around us have their 

causes in natural laws. 

14. They do not seem to realize that such a course Inevitably 

produce bad results. 

15. Fogetfulness of promises make us lose confidence in their 

fulfillment. 

16. Neglect of daily duties cause us to become insensible to the 

evil consequences resulting from them. 

17. Not even one of all that innumerable conrpany that you saw 

are happy. 

18. Even in the years of childhood the effect of bad companions 

are observable. 

19. The days of man is but as grass. 

20. The wages of sin are death. 



238 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE II. Transitive Verbs and Prepositions govern the Objec- 
tive Case. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He and I they entertained with great hospitality, but his 

brother they would not admit. 

2. Who did you buy this book for ? 

3. " Flee thee away into the land of Judea." 

4. Every person who I met upon the road seemed to be en- 

tirely ignorant of the true distance. 

5. Who are you residing with at present? 

6. Let you and I examine the exercises. 

7. I he restored to my office the next day. 

8. The lady who he rescued from a runaway horse afterwards 

became his wife. 

9. They awarded the prize to somebody, I know not who, at 

the close of the exhibition. 

10. Can you inform me who they selected for he and she to 

have as a tutor ? 

11. I observed everybody in the room, but more especially he 

with the white coat. 

12. The money that was intended* for you and I he kept for his 

own self. 

13. " Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools." 

14. These are the men who we should honor. 

15. It is impossible to agree his professions with what he has 

since said and clone. 

16. Not having studied upon this subject, it is not strange that 

he does not understand it. 

17. I never suspected of him or her. 

18. The bookkeeper charged the merchandise to the wrong- 

man, I do not remember who. 

19. Does that man know who he is writing to ? 

20. " He that honoreth me I will honor, but he that despiseth 

me I will lightly esteem." 

21. She who is guilty of the offense you should reprove; not I, 

who am innocent. 

22. He and they we know, but who art thou ? 

23. Us boys often think of you and he. 

24. I did not anticipate of so much disappointment. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 239 

RULE III. The Verb "be,' : Attributive, must be followed by the 
same Case that preceded it; when Absolute, it does not require an 
Attribute. 

EXERCISES. 

1. It was me that sent that message. 

2. It was not us that you saw in the city. 

3. Let him be whom he may, I do not fear him. 

4. " Whom do men say that I am? " 

5. I took you to be he at first sight. 

6. It was either her or her sister that was lookiDg for the 

teacher, and took my brother to be he. 

7. I am quite certain that it was not him. 

8. I would not suppose it to be he. 

9. How could you imagine that that man was me ? 

10. We understood that the boy who occupied the seat nearest 

the door was him. 

11. I could not believe that it was her. 

12. He did not believe it to be she. 

13. The committee considered the two best qualified candidates 

to be George and I. 

14. Who do the people expect to be the next President ? 

15. Was it him or me tbat was appointed ? 

16. I am certain that it was not him. 

17. He saw a lady whom we took to be she. 

18. I would not attempt to accomplish it by that means, if I 

were him. 

19. It was them who gave us all that trouble. 

20. Was it her that told me that? 

21. I did not suppose that it could be us that he expected to 

prepare the resolutions. 

22. If any one gets the office it will be him. 

23. It must have been him that I paid for the work. 

24. We wish it understood that it was not us who circulated 

such a report. 

25. I could not be certain whether it was her or not. 

26. "Whom think ye that I am?" 

27. It might have been him that did it. 

28. Who did you expect me to hire ? 

29. I think that it was them that took me to be he. 



240 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE IV. The Past Participle of the Principal Verb must be 
used in all the Perfect Tenses of the Common Form and in the Pas- 
sive Form; but it is improper to substitute it for the Past Tense. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He must have did it during my absence. 

2. She seen them before they seen her. 

3. Have you ever saw a meteor ? 

4. I done it just to plague him. 

5. Everybody who has ever went there has ran away from the 

noise. 

6. The ground was shook by the earthquake like the deck of 

a ship on a rough sea. 

7. He has often rang this bell. 

8. You might have shrank from the sight. 

9. We were showed into the reception room. 

10. The water of the lakes was froze by it. 

11. He never knowed what hurted him. 

12. My friends have all forsook me. 

13. It was soon forgot by the community. 

14. The corn growed two inches to-day. 

15. When the nail was drove into the wall the plaster begun to 

fall. 

16. Many false prophets had already arose. 

17. All the neighbors were bade to the wedding. 

18. We have bore the burden long enough. 

19. I had often forbade him to do it. 

20. She has broke her pencil again. 

21. Two trees were blew down by the wind. 

22. The officers have all been chose. 

23. My money has came at last. 

24. He come too late to be took to see the show. 

25. I have wrote five letters, and have threw them all into the 

fire because they were tore. 
20. The statement was swore to before me. 

27. My chickens were all stole last night. 

28. My little canary has just flew out of the window and 

escaped. 

29. He laid in bed sick, three days. 

30. Our hens have lain thirty eggs since Monday. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 241 

RULE V. The Progressive Form must be used when the Verb 
denotes the continuation of an act or state; but the Common Form 
is required for an instantaneous act or event, for a succession of 
acts, and for a custom, habit, or rule. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. You should be replying' when I am asking a question. 

2. I was leaving as soon as the clock was striking one. 

3. They can be deciding for themselves. 

4. The man that was hurt dies. 

5. Every animal that lives is dying at last. 

6. You should not be talking aloud while I read. 

7. The dog is barking when any one opens the gates. 

8. She looked at me when it was happening. 

9. Every time that the clock is ticking another moment is fly- 

ing into eternity. 

10. Where were you finding this pen ? 

11. I looked for it when you were coming in. 

12. Mr. Scott builds a new house. 

13. The boy who was having the fever now recovers his strength. 

14. He is always taking cold whenever he is sitting in a 

draught. 

15. He is usually writing his letters in the evening. 

1G. That man is coughing whenever he is trying to speak. 

17. All the banks are remaining closed on Sunday. 

18. The fishes are not all living in salt water. 

19. When a bird is soaring it is extending its wings. 

20. Time and tide will not be waiting for any one. 

21. The sunshine is causing the vegetation to be covering the 

surface of the earth. 

22. Every day that is passing is seeing another rotation of the 

earth upon its axis. 

23. If the doorkeeper is admitting you into the room, you must 

be going and taking a seat. 

24. The powder works were exploding last night, and were kill- 

ing seventeen men. 

25. He is loving some and hating others. 

26. Do not be giving money to every one that is asking for it. 

27. He is dismissing the classes at four o'clock. 

28. The sun is rising in the east and setting in the west. 

11 



242 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE VI. The Passive Form is always to be preferred in writ- 
ing or speaking when the Subject-Nominative of the Active is in 
the First Person, and the Active when it is of any other Person. 

EXERCISKS. 

1. I have corrected all your examination papers. 

2. We have been informed by him that lie is coming. 

3. I was requested by the operator to prepay the message. 

4. We have already notified them several times. 

5. I have often been deceived by appearances. 

6. We had just opened the gate when the horse ran away. 

7. I may render the decision to-morrow or next day. 

8. We might have been invited by them to be present. 

9. I was greatly surprised at the coolness of his remark. 

10. We found many of the missing articles covered up in the 

sand. 

11. I immediately acknowledged the receipt of the money. 

12. We should have brought the children with us. 

13. I afterwards recovered the coat that was stolen from the 

hall by offering a reward. 

14. We sometimes covered the most delicate plants with a 

screen during the night. 

15. I was occasionally visited by my neighbor's children. 

16. We must not drive the horse so fast. 

17. I would have handed in my subscription last Wednesday, 

but I had not yet received the money. 

18. W T e shall have paid the money before ten o'clock on Friday 

morning of next week. 

19. I would have been killed by the robber if my friend had 

not just then appeared. 

20. We carried his remains to the cemetery and deposited them 

in the grave without any ceremony. 

21. I kept the letters carefully until his arrival. 

22. W^e may be compelled by the ice to abandon our course. 

23. I am always delighted to see the children play. 

24. We never anticipated so favorable a reply. 

25. I invited the doctor to dine with us, but as he was absent, 

we were disappointed. 
2(5. We have swept the room and kindled the fire. 
27. I never neglect my work. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 243 

RULE VII. The Present Participle, when used as a Noun, gener- 
ally requires " the " or some other Adjective Modifier to precede it, 
and "of" or some other Preposition to follow it, especially when 
used after a Finite Verb; but a Participle should not be connected 
■with an Infinitive. In many cases " the " and "of "may both be 
omitted; and a Noun or Pronoun that immediately precedes a Pres- 
ent Participle takes the Possessive Case. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He has signed the contract for building of his house. 

2. I always like to listen to the falling rain upon the roof. 

3. Not every man controls the making his own fortune. 

4. The last measure was abandoning of the ship. 

5. By exercising our faculties they are improved. 

6. This prevented the injuring his neighbor's property. 

7. Learning of a foreign language is not an easy task. 

8. What is the cause of him writing so badly? 

9. I do not understand you answering so evasively. 

10. This man disappearing at such a time looks suspicious. 

11. She likes to stand at the windows of the stores and look- 

ing at the pictures. 

12. Which would you prefer — to go to the theater, or staying 

at borne and taking care of the house ? 

13. He gave his evidence in hearing of three witnesses, and 

the judge insisted upon the dismissing the case. 

14. What could have been the reason of him dismissing his 

servant without warning ? 

15. Studying of the heavens exalts the mind. 

16. Improving of others occupied his time and attention more 

than to improve himself. 

17. What did he think of us moving to the city ? 

18. Do not forget locking of the doors to-night. 

19. Business men do not admire nourishing letters. 

20. By us approving of their bad conduct they will be encour- 

aged in doing of worse things. 

21. I do not remember it being reported. 

22. What is the reason of the moon rising so late ? 

23. The repairing injuries previously done is an indispensable 

prerequisite of true repentance. 

24. By using of money judiciously he succeeded in the accu- 

mulating much property. 



244 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE VIII. After the Past Indicative the Present Infinitive is 
required instead of the Perfect; and all Verbs in the same Sentence 
must correspond in their Tenses. 

EXERCISES. 

1. I always intended to have gone to Europe. 

2. From a long and intimate acquaintance I always consid- 

ered him to have been a friend. 

3. If a man has a hundred sheep, and one of them will go 

astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and goeth 
into the mountains and seeketh that which may go 
astray ? 

4. Professing friendship and to act differently indicates a 

mind insensible to honor. 

5. After all that I had done to assist him I expected him to 

have shown more gratitude. 

6. He was obliged to have paid the money. 

7. Did he not acknowledge his error, and asked you to have 

forgiven his fault ? 

8. If you attend diligently to your business, and will save 

your money, you shall succeed. 

9. Time is money, and will pass quickly; therefore we should 

improve it, and will not lose a moment. 

10. Mistakes are made by the wisest men, but they will be re- 

peated only by fools. 

11. He that rejoices at the misfortunes of his neighbor, and 

will refuse to assist him when in trouble, will find no 
sympathizing friend in the time of his own adversity. 

12. I shall carry my umbrella with me, as it might rain before 

I return. 

13. I intended to have written to you long ago. 

14. He expected me to have gone with him. 

15. It was necessary to have made a much better preparation 

for the exhibition. 

16. He expected too much, and will be disappointed. 

17. This boy might have been at school yesterday, but his pa- 

rents will not let him. 

18. If we expect to be treated courteously by others, we ought 

to have been courteous to others. 

19. I never imagined him to have been here. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 245 

20. My father desired me to have come with him. 

21. He was so sick that his friends often feared he would have 

died before my arrival. 

22. I provided myself with a sufficient sum of money, as I 

might have required it. 

23. Carry your provisions with you, for we might be detained 

upon the road. 

24. It would have been a source of pleasure to me to relieve 

him from his distress: 

25. I always expected to have gone alone. 

26. He never intended to have done it. 

27. After a man has done all he could do, it will be no more 

than it would be his duty to have done. 

28. I did not attach any importance to any remarks that he 

might have made. 

29. You ought not to require him to have paid the money un- 

til his friend should come. 

30. On the first day of November I shall be at college six 

months. 

31. I shall have been thirty years of age on the twentieth day 

of August. 

32. He will live here nine years on the day after Christmas. 

33. " Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life." 

34. "And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 5 ' — Luke 

VII., 15. 

35. "I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 

tinue with me now three days." 

36. From the short interview that I had, I judged him to have 

been a learned man. 

37. I intended to have written to you last week. 

38. He was inclined to consider all men to have been more or 

less dishonest. 

39. Most people believe that the soul was immortal. 

40. In two days it will be six months that you have been with 

us. 

41. It will soon be four hundred years that America will be 

discovered by Columbus. 

42. The lecturer states in his last lecture that hepatic diseases 

prevailed in tropical climates. 



246 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE IX. The old Form of Subjunctive must be used in the 
Present and Past Tenses to express contingency and futurity -when 
both are implied, and the Indicative to express futurity or determi- 
nation alone. 

EXEECISES. 

1. And if a man smites his slave, and he dies under his hand, 

he shall be surely punished; but if he continues a day or 
two before he die, he shall not be punished, for he is his 
money. — Exodus, XXI., 20, 21. 

2. If the sun appears, cover the plants. 

3. If he is alone when you meet him, give him the letter. 

4. Though he be high, he has respect to the lowly. 

5. If the teacher were present that was the reason that you 

found the rooms open. 

6. If the teacher was present, you would be able to witness 

some of the exercises. 

7. Despise not any condition of life that thou seest, lest it 

happens to be thine own. 

8. Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he falleth. 

9. I shall be satisfied if he does not get the prize, for he has 

indirectly derived great benefit. 

10. He replied in the negative; and if he speak as he thinks, he 

. may be safely trusted. 

11. If he only intimates his desire, I shall stand ready to com- 

ply with his wishes. 

12. Let him that is most sanguine of success be careful lest he 

fails and is disappointed. 

13. If he but exercises good judgment and discretion we shall 

certainly succeed. 

14. Oh, that my life was ended! 

15. If thou be Christ, save thyself and us! 

16. Though he falls he shall not be utterly cast down. 

17. If he acquires sudden wealth it will ruin him. 

18. Make peace with thine adversary quickly lest he finds thee 

and slays thee. 

19. Beware that thou speakest not to him. 

20. Call at my office, and if I am there I shall go with you and 

see him. 

21. If he be a young man, he has, nevertheless, had a long and 

varied experience. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 247 

RULE X. When a Verb in the Infinitive Mood is used as a Noun 
in the Objective Case, the Infinitive sign " to" rnay often properly be 
omitted or elided after the principal Verbs, "bid," "dare,"' "need," 
"make," "see," "hear," "feel," "let," "perceive," " behold, "" ob- 
serve," "help," "have," "watch," and "know;" also after all Aux- 
iliary Verbs, such as "have," "do," "shall," and "can."' 

EXERCISES. 

1. Go out into the highways and bid them to come in. 

2. Cassius, darest thou to leap with me into this angry flood 

and to swim to yonder point ? 

3. You need not to fear any opposition or to anticipate any 

trouble from that source. 

4. Make the prisoners to work upon the roads and to assist in 

their own support. 

5. I have often seen young people with little or no experience 

to conduct themselves very circumspectly. 

6. We heard him to say something in your favor. 

7. Just as I fell asleep I felt something to touch my cheek, 

and awoke to find a spider on my face. 

8. Let every person that is present to take part in the ceremo- 

nies and to contribute his mite. 

9. Can you perceive it to move ? 

10. Behold him to weep and to wring bis hands! 

11. Did you ever observe the sun to pass the meridian while on 

your voyage out ? 

12. You should help the boys to pick the fruit. 

13. Have the janitor to open all the windows before he sweeps 

the room and dusts the furniture. 

14. I am watching the spider to construct its web. 

15. I have known the lightning for to destroy trees and houses 

by setting them on fire, and to kill men and horses. 

16. When that horse does to kick he kicks viciously. 

17. I will to open my eyes when I shall awake. 

18. He can not to deprive me of my libert}^. 

19. He could not easily to have killed a thousand men without 

their consent. 

20. That boy shall not, under any circumstances, to resume his 

place in the class this week. 

21. This man could always, without difficulty, to determine .the 

amount of resistance to be overcome. 



248 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XI. When several Nouns or Pronouns in the Singular 
Number are connected by "and," they require the Verb before 
which they are in the Nominative, as well as any subsequent Pro- 
noun referring to them, to be Plural; but when contrasted by the 
use of "or "or "nor," the Verb and Pronoun must be Singular. 
"When the Preposition "with "is substituted for "and," the word 
after it is in the Objective Case, and the Rule does not apply. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The boy and his father works at the box factory, 

2. A man with a boy sometimes do less work than if he were 

alone with no one to instruct. 

3. Monday or Tuesday are the most convenient days. 

4. A hen with one chicken sometimes make more disturbance 

in the poultry yard than another with fifteen. 

5. Thunder and lightning is one of the most common phe- 

nomena in Minnesota. 

6. A good library or a well-furnished picture gallery are never- 

ending sources of enjoyment. 

7. An orange tree with its fruit are the most gorgeous sights 

that I have seen in the orchard. 

8. An apple and a pear greatly resembles each other. 

9. A trip across the continent or a voyage around the world 

are now within the means of most people. 

10. The time and place for holding the convention was agreed 

upon last year. 

11. Intemperance and ignorance is the parent -of many of the 

vices of mankind. 

12. The modest virgin, the prudent wife, or the careful matron 

are much more esteemed than philosophers or politicians 
in petticoats. 

13. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. 

14. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 

move merely as they are moved. 

15. The warrior, the statesman, the diplomatist is combined 

in the candidate of our party. 

16. A book with one leaf missing are sources of great annoy- 

ance when the absent leaf contains the veiy information 
that you are looking for. 

17. Want of care, more than want of knowledge, are the causes 

of most of our errors. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 249 

RULE XII. When one or more Nouns or Pronouns in the Singu- 
lar Number are connected by "or" or "nor" with another in the 
Plural, the Verb before which it is used in the Nominative Case must 
agree with the one that is Plural, which must be placed last; and 
when Singular and Plural Nominatives are connected by the Verb 
"be" as a Copula, it must agree in Number with the Nominative 
that follows it, which should be Singular. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Neither the scholars nor the teacher was present. 

2. I did not learn whether several or one was concerned in the 

robbery of the stage. 

3. They or he guards the property on the wharf. 

4. The cares of business or the neglect of his health was in- 

strumental in causing this sickness. 

5. Either the windows or the door requires to be left open. 

6. Neither the pens nor the inkstand is here. 

7. When the ship struck upon the rocks neither the sailors 

nor the captain was aware of the danger. 

8. Either his friends or himself was to blame for it. 

9. They or William has attended to it before this time. 

10. The wages of sin are death. 

11. Joy and peace and happiness are the reward of those who 

walk uprightly. 

12. The restrictions placed upon our foreign commerce were 

the cause of the depression. 

13. Locusts and wild honey were his daily food. 

14. Her principal occupation and delight were correspondence 

with her friends. 

15. The termination of the war and the establishment of peace 

were the desire of all. 

16. Neither the suggestions of his friends nor the advice of his 

brother was sufficient to restrain him. 

17. Either they or he is to suffer for the acts of the treasurer, 

whose bonds they signed. 

18. Neither the chickens nor the hen is in the garden. 

19. Either my sisters or my mother is to go into the country. 

20. Neither riches nor poverty have had any influence upon him. 

21. Neither meat nor fishes are good for him; he must have 

fruits and vegetables. 

22. Either the ventilation or the food are defective. 



250 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XIII. A Verb before which a Collective Noun, conveying 
unity of idea, is used in the Nominative Case, must be in the Singu- 
lar Number; but -when plurality of idea is conveyed, the Verb must 
be Plural. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The people on the streets was very numerous. 

2. The class were large and well attended. 

3. My people does not consider; it has not known me. 

4. The committee were composed of three members. 

5. The whole hive of bees was busy collecting honey. 

6. Congress have been adjourned. 

7. "Why does the multitude complain ? 

8. The school, and not the theater, are, or ought to be, the 

object of the teacher's solicitude. 

9. As the population increase, more coin are required to be in 

circulation. 

10. That meeting were well conducted. 

11. No nation were ever so prosperous. 

12. The fleet were ordered to return. 

13. The vast multitude rushed wildly out of the theater as 

though it was mad. 

14. The school were large aud interesting. 

15. The people was persecuted by its enemies. 

16. This people are distinct from all other nations, and are dis- 

tinguished for the excellence of its laws. 

17. The board was not unanimous in its opinions.. 

18. Some people is ever busy and yet accomplishes very little 

during the whole year. 

19. The crowd was so infuriated that it took the prisoner from 

the jail and hanged him. 

20. That drove of sheep were sold for two hundred dollars, and 

another for three hundred. 

21. A commission were appointed to determine all questions 

brought before them. 

22. The court rendered their decision, but were not ready to 

try the next case. 

23. The army consist largely of foreigners. 

24. That people are the most prosperous on the face of the 

globe. 

25. The class were interrupted by the noise. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 251 

RULE XIV. Pronouns agree in Gender, Person, and Number with 
their Antecedents, and Pronominal Adjectives in Number with 
the words that they modify; and when Subject-Nominatives in the 
Singular Number, but of different Persons, are connected by "or" 
or " nor," the Verb agrees with the last. 

EXERCISES. 

1. "Our Father which art in heaven." 

2. Either I or thou am greatly deceived. 

3. Neither you nor I are in good health. 

4. He or I is going to the country for some hay. 

5. The newspapers have published the announcement that you 

or your brother are dead. 

6. He says that Frank or I has the best chance. 

7. He or you is the person best qualified to undertake so seri- 

ous a task. 

8. Either the doctor, who examined the patient, or I, who 

was present, is mistaken. 

9. I or you or he am in fault. 

10. He or you are to be invited to accompany her. 

11. Either Alexander or I is the owner of the pen that you 

found; we each lost one like it. 

12. Can any one be sure that they are not mistaken ? 

13. A man's stomach can not perform his functions properly 

without solid food. 

14. Those sort of people hesitate at nothing. 

15. Those kind of apples are the best for cooking. 

16. I have been waiting for you this two hours. 

17. The crosscut was extended fifty foot. 

18. He brought me a ten-feet rod. 

19. A two-feet rule will answer my purpose. 

20. We have no preferences except that of uprightness, truth, 

and virtue. 

21. These are the class of citizens who complain the loudest of 

bad government. 

22. He found all the pews occupied except that of Mr. Jones 

and Mrs. Brown, which were both entirely unoccupied. 

23. Either he or I were expected to come. 

24. The oldest inhabitant has not seen one of those kind of 

storms this forty years. 



252 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XV. The Antecedent and the Pronoun must not both be 
used in the Nominative Case before a Verb, or in the Objective Case 
after it, or in the Possessive. 

EXERCISES. 

1. All the men that followed Baal-peor, the Lord hath de- 

stroyed them. — Deut. IV., 3. 

2. The Lord he is the God.— 1 Kings, XVIII., 39. 

3. Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. — Ps. XXIII., 4. 

4. Sam he told me where it was. 

5. The man that bought the property I took him into the gar- 

den to see it. 

6. Every opportunity that I find for study I always improve it. 

7. The author of the book he received no benefit whatever 

from its publication. 

8. Our friends when they went to California we went to bid 

them good-by. 

9. The teacher when he asked me if I had studied the lesson 

I replied "Yes." 

10. The boy who played and his books were stolen was afraid 

to go to school without them. 

11. That man I am not afraid of his dog. 

12. He that lendeth indiscriminately his money will soon dis- 

appear. 

13. Photography, or the art of taking pictures, it is a very in- 

teresting study. 

14. The art of printing, by which books have been so greatly 

multiplied, it has done more than any other agency to ad- 
vance civilization. 

15. The Seven Churches of Asia they have long since been lost 

sight of. 

16. The countries that progagated the Christian religion in 

its primitive form they are noted for the backward state 
of their development. 

17. Oar cows their milk is very rich. 

18. When Alfred the Great he went in disguise he submitted 

to great indignities. 

19. Now the rest of the acts of Jehoshaphat, first and last, be- 

hold they are written in the book of Jehu. — 2 Chron. 
XX., 34. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 253 

RULE XVI. An Adverb modifying an Adjective, or another Ad- 
verb, generally precedes it; it usually precedes a Transitive Verb 
followed by its Object, and follows an Intransitive Verb when no 
Auxiliary Verb is used; but it should be placed between the Auxil- 
iary and the Principal Verb. There are many exceptions, however, 
to this Rule. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The lecturer fluently speaks, and selects always an inter- 

esting subject. 

2. He read afterwards a choice selection. 

3. You have improved the picture greatly. 

4. We should not be overcome too greatly by our emotions, 

or elated too much by success. 

5. He was listened to attentively by his audience. 

6. It must be, therefore, preferable to the other. 

7. The members of the society consented voluntarily to assist 

the committee in arranging the programme. 

8. He will abandon forever that habit. 

9. We never had seen him previous to that time. 

10. This boy had never a fever before. 

11. She analyzed quickly a difficult sentence. 

12. That little girl rapidly adds and beautifully draws. 

13. She not only was handsome but accomplished also. 

14. This is a hard pencil, very. 

15. The chicken began immediately to chirp. 

16. Will you give me nry knife ever? 

17. I not only found him sick but helpless. 

18. Only having commenced the study, I could not answer 

readily all the questions. 

19. In the proper use of adverbs the ear carefully requires to 

be trained. 

20. Having not made any preparation, and being not accus- 

tomed to public speaking, I was unable to describe cor- 
rectly what I saw in the country. 

21. Begin always at the beginning. 

22. We must study diligently all our lessons. 

23. He tried never to make another attempt. 

24. The cups must be filled with milk only at the table. 

25. Sometimes he cries. 

26. "I hope not much to tire those I shall not please." 



254 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

«» 

RULE XVII. When a Noun or Pronoun is used alone in answer 
to a question, its Case must be the same as that of the word resem- 
bling it in the question; and a Noun or Pronoun after "than" or 
" as," is either in the Nominative Case before some Verb understood, 
or in the Objective after an elided Verb or Preposition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The lesson was more correctly recited by his brother and 

sister than he. 

2. He is not as tall as me. 

3. I would rather give it to you than he. 
^4. Who gave the meat to the dog? Me. 

5. By whom were these words written ? I did. 

6. He is just as much to blame as her. 

7. Who imparted to them this information, which cost me so 

much ? Not me. It was him. 

8. Whose pencil is that ? His'n. 

9. They can sing as well as him, but he is a better writer than 

them both. 

10. Which pen would you prefer to use ? Your'n. 

11. I know that she regrets it more than me. 

12. Whose cows were those that you were driving to the pas- 

ture yesterday ? Our'n. 

13. Who did you see at church? He and his sister. 

14. The work was much better executed by his father than him 

or them. 

15. Charley can spell more correctly than me. 

16. To whom did he apply for assistance ? I. 

17. Who generally attends to the correspondence ? Me. 

18. He was not as badly hurt by the accident as me, but I was 

not so much frightened as him. 

19. We did not laugh at him every time that he made a mis- 

take, but perhaps we can do just as well as them that 
did. 

20. She is more righteous than me. 

21. Who gave the first correct result? Her. 

22. Whose piano is she playing upon ? Hern. 

23. I regretted the death of my friend more than him. 

24. Who gave him permission to pick flowers? Her. 

25. You always used to dress quicker than me. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 255 

RULE XVIII. Before names of places, "to " is used after Verbs 
of motion, "at" after the Verbs "be" and "arrive," "at" before 
names of small towns and villages^ "in" before country districts 
and counties, "in" before countries and large cities, "on" before 
elevated points and plains, "at" and "in" before "church," 
"school," "the store," or "the house," "on" before "land," and 
"on " or "at" before "sea." 

EXERCISES. 

1. We shall travel for Boston by rail. 

2. The circus was to Rochester last week. 

3. After we arrived in our destination we separated. 

4. "We spent two days in Painsec Junction. 

5. He owns a farm on the Minnesota valley. 

6. The train ran very slowly at Pennsylvania. 

7. My brother resides at New York. 

8. He spends the vacation in Clear lake. 

9. This happened while we were at Egypt. 

10. Quito is situated in an elevated plateau. 

11. All our stock died in the plains. 

12. He studied French while he was to college. 

13. My mother was to church when I arrived. 

14. "We keep two clerks by the store. 

15. Your father is over to the warehouse. 

16. I would rather be at land than on sea. 

17. A passenger left the train in the first station. 

18. We shall afterwards proceed for Harlem. 

19. I remained in Mount Hope five hours. 

20. The Lick Observatory will be located at Mount Hamilton. 

21. Have you ever seen the Big Trees that grow at Calaveras 

county, California? 

22. Our party stopped in Niagara Falls. 

23. The scenery in Yosemite is magnificent. 

24. When shall we go in Arizona ? 

25. He is now the station agent in Hay ward's. 

26. There is no more danger at the sea than at the land. 

27. He was mortally wounded in Lookout mountain. 

28. * Have you ever been to a horse-race ? 
29". There is a coal mine on that mountain. 

30. When I went in Europe I spent two weeks at London and 
a day in Lake Geneva. 



256 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XIX. A Relative Pronoun must be placed immediately- 
after its Antecedent; and the thing owned or possessed must imme- 
diately follow the word in the Possessive Case after which it is used 
without any intervening word or phrase. If two or more words are 
in apposition, the apostrophe and " s " must be used only on the last. 

EXERCISES . 

1. The money was deposited in the bank which my brother 

gave me last week. 

2. I was surprised at the tramp's, as they called him, audacity 

and impudence. 

3. The superintendent discharged the conductor without any 

investigation, who had never before been accused of an 
unjust action. 

4. They very wisely resisted the commander's, as it -seemed, 

extravagant and unreasonable order. 

5. The old veteran, without any guide, w r ho could not assist in 

any other way, consented to conduct us through the 
woods. 

6. These are Moses', the deliverer and lawgiver of the Jewish 

people's, psalms. (See p. 125, sec. 61.) 

7. Three of the best horses were burned when the stables were 

destroyed, which cost us fifteen hundred dollars. 

8. Abraham Lincoln's, the martyred President's, Proclamation 

of Emancipation will perpetuate the memory of his 
name. 

9. The roofs of the houses were caused to leak by the intense 

heat of the sun's rays, which were situated on the hill. 

10. The father celebrated the prodigal's, as he was called, re- 

turn by killing the fatted calf. 

11. The decline of the Roman empire may be dated from the 

time of the withdrawal of their forces from abroad to 
defend Rome from the northern barbarians, which de- 
prived her of the control of Europe. 

12. My dog's, if possible, collar must be made at once. 

13. The messenger arrived with a letter containing a draft pay- 

able to the order of the conductor, who had been de- 
tained by an accident, after the departure of the train, 
which was caused by neglect; and consequently the 
money could not be obtained until he returned. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 257 

RULE XX. "That" should be substituted for "who" or "which:" 

I. When the meaning is to be restricted. 2. After " same" and "all," 
and sometimes : ' some " and "any." 3. When the Antecedent is 
the Interrogative " who," or the Third Personal Pronouns "he " and 
"she." 4. After an Adjective in the Superlative Degree. 5. When 
there are several Antecedents, consisting of persons and inferior ani- 
mals or things. 6. When the Antecedent refers to very young chil- 
dren. 7. When euphony or the association of other ideas makes it 
preferable. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The child which was lost has been found. 

2. He who sows the wind shall reap the whirlwind. 

3. "To him who hath shall be given; but from him who hath 

not shall be taken away even that which he hath." 

4. "Blessed is the man which walketh in wisdom's ways." 

5. "He who fights and runs away may live to fight another 

day." 

6. The snow which fell upon the roof is clean. 

7. The boy and the dog which went in to swim were both 

drowned. 

8. This is the same man who applied before. 

9. All the apples which are left contain worms. 
10. Some which I saw were not yet ripe. 

II. Pick any which you. think are ripe enough. 

12. That is the largest egg which I ever saw. 

13. The most acceptable present which you could give him is 

an unabridged dictionary. 

14. Who, w T ho ever saw white fleecy clouds in a clear sky, feared 

that it would rain ? 

15. She who was elected "secretary was a sister of the presiding 

officer. 

16. He presented evidence which could not be doubted. 

17. The common opinion is that Solomon was the wisest king 

whom the world ever saw. 

18. In making a statement never use words which are ambigu-. 

ous or of doubtful meaning. 

As "which " is not restrictive, the sixteenth sentence would seem to assert 
that it could not be doubted that the evidence had been presented. But if 
"that" is substituted for "which," the meaning is thereby restricted so as 
to indicate that the evidence was such that it could not be doubted. The same 
is true of the eighteenth sentence. 



258 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XXI. Pronouns must be replaced with their Antecedents 
whenever ambiguity or confusion is caused by their use. A change 
of structure is generally necessary in very long Sentri-oes when per- 
spicuity can not otherwise be imparted. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The young man paid the money to the boy without any in-- 

vestigation; but when his father discovered the mistake 
he went and explained it to him, and he sent his brother 
to correct it. 

2. And it came to pass that night that the angel of the Lord 

went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians a hun- 
dred fourscore and five thousand; and when they arose 
early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses. 
—2 Kings, XIX., 35. 

3. In the same day shall the Lord shave with a razor that is 

hired, namely, by them beyond the river, by the king of 
Assyria, the head, and the hair of the feet; and it shall 
also consume the beard. — Isaiah, VII., 20. 

4. The girls requested the boys to bring their books with them 

when they came to their houses, as they had forgotten to 
bring them when they came the previous evening. 

5. Gold, though useful as money, which men seek after, and 

useful in many ways, is not so useful as iron, for it is 
used for purposes that it is not fitted for. 

6. They have no confidence in their friends, for while they re- 

spect them, they see in them many things that they 
could cause to be otherwise. 

7. The boys saw some squirrels, but they ran away when they 

ran into the field, and when they returned they were not 
there. 

8. When he attempted to drive the stake into the ground with 

the ax, he found it so hard that it broke it before he 
struck three blows. 

9. If you sharpen the pencil with that knife, it will break it if 

you are not careful. 

10. "Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in oth- 

ers, and think that their reputation obscures them, and 
that their commendable qualities do stand in their light; 
and therefore they try to cast a cloud over them." 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 259 

RULE XXII. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns, "each," "ev- 
ery," " either " and " neither," must be used with Verbs in the Sin- 
gular Number, and must not be confounded with each other. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Neither of these men have ever been in the city, but each 

of them desire to go. 

2. Each member of the society contribute to its support and 

assist in the exercises. 

3. Every one of us feel disappointed. 

4. Either of those pictures are good enough. 

5. Each section of every article in the by-laws are to be con- 

sidered separately, and they are to be voted upon singly. 

6. Every person in the community owe it to themselves 

and their neighbors to discourage vice and promote 
virtue. 

7. Every member of the association pay their dues and assess- 

ments promptly. 

8. Neither of those sentences are correct. 

9. Each lady wore a ring on every hand. 

10. At the rate of thirty-three and one third cents each, every 

three letters require a dollar for stamps sufficient to 
prepay the postage. 

11. Are either of these men qualified? 

12. Every child under five years of age are prohibited from at- 

tending school. 

13. There were neither of the men present. 

14. Were each of them invited to come ? 

15. Every person, whatever may be their intentions, are gov- 

erned by circumstances. 

16. Neither of those books that you selected for me were suitable 

for presents. 

17. Either of them are of the proper size. 

18. Each chicken in that brood has five toes on every foot. 

19. Every pen in the box were taken. 

20. Are each of your fingers of a different length ? 

21. Every one are the architects of their own fortunes. 

22. Each of the principal tributaries of the Mississippi river 

are navigable for many miles from their mouths, and flow 
through fertile regions. 



260 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XXIII. The Comparative and Ultra-Comparative Degrees 
and the Pronominal Adjective " other " must be followed by the 
Conjunction " than," and " such " by " as " when the latter is to be 
a Relative Pronoun, or by the Conjunction "that " when a compari- 
son or a consequence is denoted; but Comparatives terminating in 
" ior " must be followed by " to." 

EXERCISES. 

1. The man that said that possesses little more intelligence 

besides the ape or chimpanzee. 

2. They derived no greater benefit from the sale but to be 

able to replace the old shop-worn goods with new. 

3. Such friends that only stand by you while you are able to 

assist them are not worth having. 

4. A cambric needle is not so fine as the sting of a mosquito, 

but is finer compared with the point of a pin; much finer, 
then, is the mosquito's sting with the point of a pin. 

5. Such angry words that you uttered in the presence of the 

children are quite uncalled for. 

6. The ox, though larger in proportion to the lion, is much 

inferior than he is in strength. 

7. Those savage cannibals seem to have no other desire but to 

kill and eat each other. 

8. Be ever ready to assist such people who are in need and 

worthy of your assistance. 

9. The heat of the burning building was so intense as the fire- 

men could not approach it. 

10. We had no sooner arrived at our destination when it began 

to rain and blow. 

11. There was such indignation manifested by the populace as 

a serious disturbance seemed imminent. 

12. It is good to be here, for this is none other but the very 

gate of paradise. 

13. To pay him for his services is no more but what is his due. 

14. When we do all we can we do no more but our duty. 

15. If the factors of a composite number be severally divided, 

and the quotients multiplied, the product thus obtained 
will be as many times less, compared with the given 
number, than the number of units in the product of the 
divisors used; and upon this depends the multiplication 
of decimals. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 261 

RULE XXIV. When a comparison is made between only two 
ideas, or between one and several others collectively, the Compar- 
ative is used; between the first and third of three only, the Ultra- 
Comparative; and between more than three, the Superlative. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Sam is much the eldest of the three, and Fred is the eldest 

of the other two; but Harry is more attentive of all the 
boys in school. 

2. He is the surest of any other to succeed, for he has had the 

most experience of them all. 

3. I understood him the best of all others that addressed the 

meeting during the evening. 

4. " Brutus " and " Csesar;" why should his name be sounded 

most? 

5. But when I saw the camel and the elephant at the menag- 

erie I thought that the former was the ugliest of the two. 

6. The sine of any angle is always the shortest when com- 

pared with the chord of the quadrant, and the chord of 
the quadrant is the shortest of it and the diameter; the 
sine, therefore, is much the shortest of it and the diam- 
eter. 

7. He received the most votes of any other candidate that was 

nominated. 

8. The child should obey his parents, for they are the oldest 

and have the most experience. 

9. This rosebush bears the prettiest flowers of any other thing 

that grows in the garden. 

10. If you try these two pencils you will find number two the 

hardest. 

11. When the debit side of a personal account is the largest it 

shows a debt due us; but when the credit side exceeds 
the other it indicates that we owe a balance. 

12. The Earth is nearer to the Sun than Mars, and Mars nearer 

than Jupiter; the Earth, therefore, is much the nearest 
of it and Jupiter. 
13; There was a large profit on the wheat, and a larger gain on 
the wool; but the profit on the wool was smaller than 
that on the hay /therefore the gain on the hay was much 
the greatest of it and the wheat. 



262 . ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XXV. Double Comparatives and Superlatives are im- 
proper; and an Incomparable Adjective is equivalent to a Superla- 
tive. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The belief in a Supreme Intelligence is more universal than 

any other. 

2. Her mother's features are perfect, her sister's are more per- 

fect, but hers are the most perfect of all. 

3. " This was the most unkindest cut of all." 

4. " He is the chief est among ten thousand." 

5. It is the most delightfulest spot I ever saw. 

6. They are now in a worser condition than when you last saw 

them. 

7. He is more keener sighted than his brother. 

8. It is more better to give than to receive. 

9. The company was very numerous. 

10. The task was the more easier performed from the cheerful- 

ness with which it was done. 

11. Her conduct was more ruder than her sister's. 

12. Eve is said to have been the most fairest of all her sex; but 

the most earliest of all the records of history does not 
say so. 

13. The nights are the more shorter in the summer season the 

nearer you approach the Arctic Circle. 

14. The more riper the fruit is, the more sooner it should be 

used. 

15. The most swiftest bird is the eagle. 

16. His statement was most untrue. 

17. Make that line more horizontal. 

18. His character is more spotless than the snow. 

19. It is more improper to omit the t altogether than to insert 

two t's in coveted. 

20. When they left me alone in the cell I felt most friendless 

and utterly miserable. 

21. He was the most fearless, strong, and bravest man in the 

company. 

22. You should be more certain before you speak. 

23. The hay is no more in a better condition now than when it 

was first cut. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 263 

RULE XXVI. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative; 
but the former may often be employed in preference to the latter, 
and with better effect. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He never paid no taxes before that time. 

2. It is not unpleasant to take some kinds of medicine, though 

it is not always desirable. 

3. I shall not by no means comply with his request unless he 

comes personally. 

4. Though you are never wholly unprepared, you never com- 

plete the analysis of your examples. 

5. You didn't take no money with you. 

6. Let us never be without ammunition. 

7. It isn't no use to ask him to come, because he never has no 

time to spare. 

8. It is true that he is never unemployed, but his employment 

isn't never remunerative. 

9. He never made no mistakes. 

10. She was not uncertain in her opinion, and was very posi- 

tive in her assertion. 

11. We didn't get no letters at the post-office. 

12. He was not unable to come, but preferred to remain at 

home. 

13. I never had no sickness in all my life as severe as this. 

14. I never wrote an exercise that had no errors during the 

whole term. 

15. There was not a single apple that was not wormy, conse- 

quently we did not buy none of them. 

16. There never was a time when there was no engineer to man- 

age the locomotive during the whole term of his admin- 
istration. 

17. "While there never is no day in the region of Vancouver's 

Island, we can find a place where there is by going far- 
ther north. 

18. Though he never was unable to pay his debts he was often 

compelled to delay the payment. 

19. Never put no dependence upon any one that you send to 

attend to your business; always go yourself, and it will 
never be liable to be not attended to. 



264 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XXVII. Adjectives should not be used as Adverbs, nor 
Adverbs as Adjectives or other Parts of Speech; and -when several 
Adjectives modify the same Noun, the nearest should be that which 
denotes a class or very intimate relation, and the others more or less 
remote, according to the intimacy of the modification — color being 
the most intimate after material, age next, then size and weight re- 
spectively; and restrictive, descriptive, or identifying words farthest 
from the modified word. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Nothing but a white old dilapidated fence was left. 

2. An old little miserly man kept the hotel. 

3. I was bitten by a black-and-tan little vicious puppy, with 

his tail cut off short. 

4. My little gold best pen was stolen. 

5. His little left finger had been amputated. 

6. We sold the glass empty old green little bottles all. 

7. You brought it oat into the light too sudden. 

8. Why do you write the words so careless^? 

9. He near broke my four-bladed new knife. 

10. How gorgeous the parting sun's rays are beaming through 

the fleecy light clouds! 

11 . Select the white clean feathers for the pillows. 

12. She writes elegant and sings good. 

13. My brother went to California in 1849, since when I have 

never seen him nor heard from him. 

14. This fatherless little poor boy has been full provided for by 

an old benevolent man. 

15. To whither has he departed? 

16. Where I found him was not a suitable place; so, agreeable 

to my promise, I procured another situation for him. 

17. He would not tell me from whence he came. 

18. Where does the smoke go to? 

19. Though miserable poor he was unbearable proud. 

20. Did you ever find out what became of that bantam 

speckled little pretty pullet that we lost during the war ? 
I always thought she went straight over towards Kim- 
ball's. 

21. He wrote a letter where he used the Pronoun "I" too fre- 

quent. 

22. He came down stairs quick, and acted wild. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 265 

RULE XXVIII. The use of "this" and "that," as well as "for- 
mer " and "latter," should be avoided; but when used, only two 
ideas must be presented, of which the first mentioned is denoted by 
" that " or "former." The word "respectively" must be used to re- 
late a series of ideas to another series, each to each, in order. 

EXERCISES. 

1. When the base, perpendicular, and hypothenuse of a right- 

angled triangle are in the proportion of four, five, and 
three, a perfect square can be constructed upon each. 

2. The doctrines of eternal punishment and of unconditional 

universal salvation place us in a serious dilemma; that 
has a tendency towards utter recklessness, and this to 
endless despair. 

3. Three times twenty, six times ten, and five times twelve are 

equal to sixty; and four times twenty, three times eight, 
and five times nine are equal to twenty-four, eighty, and 
forty-five. 

4. The idea formed by the ancients of an absent, anthropo- 

morphous God, detached from the universe, and residing 
in an elysium, surrounded by attendants after the fash- 
ion of an oriental king, but able to go occasionally upon 
a visit to his distant dominions, or direct his attention 
thither, and perhaps become so exasperated as to drown 
a whole world, or destroy the entire population of a 
country by famine or pestilence, regardless of age, sex, 
opportunity, or individual responsibility, is quite the re- 
verse of the modern idea of an ever-present, infinite 
Spirit, pervading the entire universe, and weaving around 
every individual such an intricate network of circum- 
stances as to render it absolutely impossible to avoid per- 
sonal responsibility, or escape from the consciousness of 
wrong doing, its personal consequences, or its effects 
upon others, or, on the other hand, to be in danger of 
forfeiting the just reward of virtue, honor, integrity, and 
self-sacrifice; that inspires and ennobles the mind, this 
debases and degrades it. 
5. The first, second, third, fourth, and fifth sales were made 
to Frank Barnard, W. W. Ross, W. W. McNeill, George 

Hawkins, and William McGowan. 
12 



266 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

RULE XXIX. The Adjectives " a" (or "an") and "the," formerly 
called Articles are omitted before generic terms; "a" is used when 
the limitation extends to any one of a class; "the" is required for 
any thing defined or restricted, as an individual, as well as for 
words in the Plural Number; and the Hst of two Nouns after the 
Comparative Degree or separated by "or," both referring to one 
and the same individual, should not have the Article repeated. 

EXERCISES. 

1. A man is the only animal that cooks his food. 

2. The quicksilver is used in the manufacture of mirrors. 

3. Errors are often made by wisest men. 

4. Rain falls upon evil and good alike. 

5. When wind blows waves have white caps. 

6. He was noted for an honesty of purpose. 

7. Love dwells in a soul, but its influence is felt far beyond a 

locality of a body. 

8. Reason and intelligence are crowning glories of a man's 

mind. 

9. Do not fight like dog or cat. (Substitute " as.") 

10. At worst he could but inflict simple reprimand. 

11. He does a little though he is always at the work. 

12. Profligate man hardly ever makes the good father, the true 

husband, or the reliable man in a business community. 

13. The gold and the silver are used for the coin. 

14. The sickness, the death, the enemies, and the friends are 

the evils that are alike a lot of a king and a peasant. 

15. It required a little money to make so small investment. 

16. A dog is a more sagacious animal than a cat. 

17. He said a little, but I said less. 

18. The bridges, the needles, the anchors, the pens, the chains, 

and the stoves are all made of the iron. 

19. He is a better singer than a speaker. 

20. That man is more a rogue than a fool. 

21. It would make a better table than a chair. 

22. This was evidently more an accident than an error or a 

blunder. 

23. An old, young, and middle-aged man entered. 

24. A cold, an inclement, and a stormy winter ensued. 

25. The bullion, or the uncoined gold and silver, was delivered 

at the U. S. Mint, or the place where money is coined. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 267 

RULE XXX. Correlative Conjunctions require to be used in 
pairs: "Though" is used with "yet," "whether" with "or," 
" either " with " or," " neither " with " nor," " as " with " as," " as " 
with " so," " so " with "as," " so " with "that." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Though I discouraged it, still he persisted. 

2. Whether you go, you can not obtain it. 

3. Either he will die, but the doctor says he will recover. 

4. Neither the horses or the cows have been fed. 

5. He writes as well without instruction than his brother does 

with the aid of his teacher. 

6. As the one dieth thus dieth the other. 

7. Those flowers are not so pretty like these. 

8. The man was so ignorant he could not read. 

9. While it was raining yet I did not get wet. 

10. Notwithstanding it is white or black it makes no difference. 

11. He will be a physician or a lawyer. 

12. Not the one nor the other will answer my purpose. 

13. They shall be so white as wool or snow. 

14. Like the twig is bent so the tree's inclined. 

15. He is not as sure as to assert it positively. 

16. The burning building became as hot that the firemen could 

not get near it. 

17. Though several futile attempts had been made still he per- 

severed till it was accomplished. 

18. Whether you go to school and stay at home you can never- 

theless study your lessons. 

19. Either all the fruit will be killed by frost, otherwise we 

shall have a large crop. 

20. Neither the captain or the sailors escaped. 

21. The snow was 'not deep, but it made the ground as white 

like a sheet. 

22. As the stars, thus shall thy seed be. 

23. It is not so dark like it was last night. 

24. If the divisor be divided and the dividend multiplied, the 

quotient will be as many times smaller as it would have 
been without the above division and multiplication, than 
there are units in the product of the divisor and mul- 
tiplier that were used in making the changes. 



268 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 



RULE XXXI. Appropriate Prepositions must be used with many 
words, of which the principal are contained in the following list: 



for, 



Accused of, 
Acquitted of, 
Adapted to, 
Acquainted with 
Addition to, 
Affronted at, 
Agreeable to, 
Advise of, 
Averse to, 
Belong to, 
Bestow upon, 
Boast of, 
Call on, at. 
Change for, 
Confide in, 
Confident of, 
Conformable to, 
Content with, 
Compliance with, 
Conversant with, 
Correspond to (re- 
late), 
Correspond with 

(by letter), 
Dependent upon, 
Derogatory to, 



Die of (a disease), 

Die by (violence), 

Differ from, 

Difficult of, 

Difficulty in, 

Decrease in or of, 

Deficiency in (ac- 
counts), 

Deficiency of (sup- 
plies), 

Disappointed in, 

Disapprove of, 

Discounted at, 

Dissent from, 

Eager for, 

Engaged in (con- 
cerned), 

Engaged to 
trothed), 

Exception to, 

Excuse from, 

Expert at, 

Free from, 

Glad of, 

Glad at (before 
participle), 



(be- 



Independent of, 

Incensed at, 

Informed upon (a 
subject), 

Informed of (an 
occurrence), 

Insist upon, 

Inside of, 

Made of (material), 

Made with (instru- 
ment), 

Made by (agent), 

Married to, 

Martyr to, 

Notice of, 

Need of, 

Observance of, 

Omitted from, 

Opposed to, 

Opposite to, or of, 

Occurred to, 

Prejudice against, 

Profit by, 

Provision for, 

Provide with, 

Reconcile to. 



Reduce to, 

Rely upon, 

Replete with. 

Report upon (a sub- 
ject), 

Report to (a princi- 
pal), 

Resemblance to, 

Resolve on or up- 
on, 

Surprised at (an 
occurrence), 

Surprised by (a sud- 
den coup), 

Swerve from, 

Subject to, 

Taste for (apursuit) 

Taste of (a pleasure) 

Think of (a person) 

Think on or upon 
(a subject), 

True to, 

Wait on or upon, 

Worthy of, 

Willing for, 

Wide of. 



EXERCISES. 

1. He was accused with a serious crime, but at the trial was 

acquitted from the charges. 

2. The feet of a cat are exactly adapted for its habits. 

3. Though not acquainted of the facts or of the accused, he 

gave his decision against him. 

4. Eobert was affronted with what I said. 

5. The course pursued was agreeable with my instructions. 

6. I advised him to the fact that I was averse on his decision. 

7. The slave no longer belongs with his master. 

8. Favors are not always bestowed to the deserving. 

9. He always boasted on his great attainments. 

10. We called for business to the store of the old captain. 

11. It is my opinion that there basbeen a change to the better. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 269 

12. If you can not confide with your friends you certainly can 

not be confident in their friendship. 

13. His conduct was not conformable with his professions. 

14. They are never content at anything. 

15. He always acted in compliance to my orders. 

16. She is thoroughly conversant of that subject. 

17. December in Australia corresponds with June in New Eng- 

land. 

18. I am not corresponding to any one just now. 

19. He was dependent to his brother. 

20. I never said anything derogatory against your character. 

21. The} r say that he died from small-pox. 

22. It is terrible to die of one's own hand. 

23. That does not differ materially with mine. 

24. Though it is difficult for performance it gives me no diffi- 

culty at finding the result. 

25. If there is no addition of the fuel there must certainly be a 

decrease to the temperature. 

26. He failed to make good the deficiency of his accounts. 

27. We soon felt the effect of a deficiency in rain. 

28. They were disappointed of their expectations. 

29. They do not disapprove our conduct. 

30. The note was discounted on three per cent. 

31. I am compelled to dissent to your opinion. 

32. That man is eager to a dispute with somebody. 

33. Were you ever engaged at a controversy ? 

34. She was once engaged with a banker. 

35. He always takes exception at my remarks. 

36. Please excuse us for further attendance. 

37. She is very expert making maps and pictures. 

38. My mother is now free of all pain. 

39. Are you not glad in your good fortune ? 

40. We were glad of hearing such good news. 

41. Education should be independent with politics. 

42. My friend was greatly incensed by this news. 

43. He was well informed in the subject of history. 

44. I was not informed upon his departure. 

45. If you insist of my acceptance I shall not refuse. 

46. The chicken was once inside in the shell. 



270 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

47. Are dolls made by wax or glass ? 

48. This picture was made by a steel pen. 

49. That watch could not be made of a blind man. 

50. She was married with my brother. 

51. He died a martyr of his religion. 

52. I received no notice on the protest. 

53. We have great need for warm clothing. 

54. Your safety lies in the observance for the rules. 

55. Two letters were omitted out of the word. 

56. My father was much opposed against the marriage. 

57. Their house is exactly opposite from ours. 

58. That is the exact opposite to what I wanted. 

59. A severe accident occurred with one of the workmen. 

60. The speaker was evidently prejudiced at the company. 

61. It is to be hoped that he will profit with his experience. 

62. He made ample provision against the future. 

63. They were provided neither in money nor food. 

64. The prisoner was reconciled with his fate. 

65. The rock was crushed and reduced in a powder. 

66. You can certainly rely against my support. 

67. The work is replete in illustrations. 

68. The committee has not yet reported of the application. 

69. Our messenger has already reported for us. 

70. It bears a strong resemblance towards the original. 

71. I have resolved in a change of occupation. 

72. After this we shall be surprised bj' nothing. 

73. On our return we were surprised with robbers. 

74. He will not swerve out of the path of rectitude. 

75. Our Master was subject under temptation. 

76. He has a decided taste in drawing. 

77. Let him but have one taste at liquor and he is ruined. 

78. Think upon me while I am absent. 

79. I have often thought about that subject. 

80. He was always true in his principles. 

81. Will you please wait at the table ? 

82. He has done nothing worthy for censure. 

83. I shall be willing to anything you may propose. 

84. You always shoot wide at the mark. 



PART V. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Giving Rules and Formulas for Spelling, to be used as Dictation Exercises 
in lessons of suitable length, at the discretion of the teacher. 



272 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



RULES AND FOKMULAS FOR SPELLING. 



1. Ex 


amples op Gender Forms of the First 


Class. 




By change 


of structure. 




Mas. 


Fein. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Bachelor, 


Maid, spinster. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Mister (Mr.), 


Missis (Mrs.) 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Master, 


Miss. 


Bull, 


Cow. 




Mistress. 


Bullock, steer, 


Heifer. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Colt, 


Filly. 


Singer, 


Singer. 


Drake, 


Duck. 




Songstress. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Friar, monk, 


Nun. 


. Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Sir, 


Madam. 


Husband, 


Wife. 




Mademoiselle. 


King, 


Queen. 


Youth, 


Maiden. 


2. Examples of Gender P 


ORMS OF THE SECOND CLASS. 




By cha?ige q 


f termination. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Don, 


Donna. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Duke, 


Duchess, 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 




Dutchess. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Editor, 


Editress, editor 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Augustus, 


Augusta. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Author, 


Authoress, author. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Equestrian, 


Equestrienne. 


Bridegroom, 


Bride. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Francis, 


Frances. 


Caterer, 


Cateress. 


George, 


Georgiana. 


Chanter, 


Chantress. 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


Charles, 


Charlotte. 


God, 


Goddess. 




Caroline. 


Governor, 


Governess. 


Cornelius, 


Cornelia. 


Grandfather, 


Grandmother. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Henry, 


Henrietta. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Dancer, 


Danseuse, dancer. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Hunter, 


Huntress. 


Director, 


Directress. 


Idolater, 


Idolatress. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



273 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Instructor, 


Instructress. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Infant, infante, 


Infanta. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Jesse, 


Jessie. 


Prior, 


Prioress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 


Joseph, 


Josephine. 


Protector, 


Protectress. 


Julius, 


Julia, Juliet. 


Peacock, 


Peahen. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess. 


Landlord, 


Landlady. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress. 


Louis, 


Louisa, Louise. 


Steward, 


Stewardess. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Sultan, 


• Sultana. 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Tailor, 


Tailoress. 


Merman, 


Mermaid. 


Thomas, 


Thomasa. 


Murderer, 


Murderess. 




Thomasine. 


Negro, 


Negress. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Traitor, 


Traitoress. 


Paul, 


Pauline. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress. 


Pedestrian, 


Pedestrienne. 


Tyrant, 


Tyranness. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Widower, 


Widow. 


Preceptor, 


Preceptress. 


Waiter, 


Waitress. 



Examples of Gender Forms of the Third Class. 
By prefixing a distinguishing word. 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Billy-goat, 


Nanny-goat. 


He-elephant, 


She-elephant. 


Buck-rabbit, 


Doe-rabbit. 


Man-servant, 


Maid-servant 


Cock-sparrow, 


Hen-sparrow. 


Male-child, 


Female-child. 


He-bear, 


She-bear. 


Male-bird, 


Female-bird. 


4. 


Examples of Pers< 


)N Forms in Pronouns. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Methinks, 


Wanting. 


She, 


They. 


I, 


We. 


Her, 


Their. 


My, 


Our. 


Hers, 


Theirs. 


Mine, 


Ours. 


Her own, 


Their own. 


My own, 


Our own. 


It, 


They. 


Thou, 


You. 


Its, 


Their. 


Thy, 


Your. 


Its, 


Theirs. 


Thine, 


Yours. 


Its own, 


Their own. 


Thine own, 


Your own. 


Me, 


Us. 


He, 


They. 


Thee, 


You. 


His, 


Their. 


Him, 


Them. 


His, 


Theirs. 


Her, 


Them. 


His own, 


Their own. 


It, 


Them. 



274 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



5. Examples of Person Forms in Verbs. 



Sing. 


Plu. 




Sing. 


Plu. 


Thou hast, 


You have. 




Thou carriest, 


You carry. 


He has, 


They have. 




He carries, 


They carry. 


Thou art, 


You are. 




Thou seest, 


You see. 


He is, 


They are. 




He sees, 


They see . 




6. Examples of 


Number Forms in Verbs. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


The boy cries, 


The boys cry. 




He remembers, 


They remember 


The bird sings, 


The birds sing. 




I am, 


We are. 


7. Examples of Number. Forms of the First Class. 




Words that have no Plural Form. 




Bread, 


Ginger, 


Ignorance, 


Platina, 


Brass, 


Gold, 


Milk, 


Pride. 


Dignity, 


Greed, 


Molasses, 


Putty, 


Dough, 


Hay, 


Music, 


Wealth, 


Excellence, 


Happiness, 


Peace, 


Weather, 


Flour, 


Honesty, 




Philosophy, 


Wheat. 



8. Examples of Number Forms of the Second Class. 
Words that have no Singular Form. 



Aborigines, 


Contents, 


Mumps, 


Shears, 


Alms, 


Dregs, 


News, 


Snuffers, 


Annals, 


Entrails, 


Nippers, 


Suds, 


Artillery, 


Ethics, 


Nuptials, • 


Thanks, 


Ashes, 


Fireworks, 


Oats, 


The public 


Assets, 


Hustings, 


Obsequies, 


Tidings, 


Belles-lettres, 


Hysterics, 


Pincers, 


Tongs, 


Calipers, 


Infantry, 


Pliers, 


Trousers, 


Cavalry, 


Literati, 


Riches, 


Vespers, 


Clothes, 


Mathematics, 


Rickets, 


Victuals, 


Compasses, 


Measles, 


Scissors, 


Vitals. 



9. Examples of Number Forms of the Third Class. 
Words with the same Form for Singular and Plural. 



Amends, 


Gross, 


Odds, 


That, 


Any, 


Grouse, 


Pains, 


Vermin 


Bellows, 


Hose, 


Series, 


Wages, 


Corps, 


Latter, 


Sheep, 


What, 


Deer, 


Means, 


Species, 


Which, 


Former, 


None, 


Swine, 


Who. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



275 



10. Examples of Number Forms of the Fourth Class. 
Words having tivo Plural Forms. 
Sing. Plu. 

Apparatus, Apparatus or apparatuses. 

Gallows, Gallows or gallowses. ' 

Heathen, Heathen or heathens. 

Summons, Summons or summonses. 

11. Examples of Number Forms of the Fifth Class. 

Words wliose Plural Form ends with s. 



Sing. 
Apple, 
Board, 




Plu. 
Apples. 
Boards. 


Sing. 
Chicken, 
Druid, 




Plu. 

Chickens. 
Druids. 


Book, 




Books. 


Street, 




Streets. 




12. 


Examples of Number Forms of the 


Six 


rH Class. 


Words which, 


ending in lite Singular Form with s, sh, 
x and z, add es in the Plural. 


ch 


soft as in ci 


Sing. 
Ax, 




Plu. 
Axes. 


Sing. 
Gas, 




Plu. 
Gases. 


Adz, 




Adzes. 


Lens, 




Lenses. 


Arch, 




Arches. 


Patch, 




Patches. 


Box, 




Boxes. 


Six, 




Sixes. 


Bush, 

Crutch, 




Bushes. 
Crutches. 


Topaz, 
Witch, 




Topazes. 
Witches. 



13. Examples of Number Forms of the Seventh Class. 
Words which, ending in the Singular Form ivith o, add only s to form the Plural. 

Sing. 
Bamboo, 
Cameo, 
Canto, 
Cuckoo, 
Domino, 
Duodecimo, 
Embryo, 
Folio, 
Halo, 
Junto, 
Lasso, 
Limbo, 
Memento, 

14. Examples of Number Forms of the Eighth Class. 
Words which, ending in the Singular Form ivith o, add es to form the Plural, 
Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 

Cargo, Cargoes. 



Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Bamboos. 


Nuncio, 


Nuncios. 


Cameos. 


Octavo, 


Octavos- 


Cantos. 


Piano, 


Pianos. 


Cuckoos. 


Portfolio, 


Portfolios. 


Dominos. 


Proviso, 


Provisos. 


Duodecimos. 


Quarto, 


Quartos. 


Embryos. 


Salvo, 


Salvos. 


Folios. 


Seraglio, 


Seraglios. 


Halos. 


Solo, 


Solos. 


Juntos. 


Trio, 


Trios. 


Lassos. 


Two, 


Twos. 


Limbos. 


Tyro, 


Tyros. 


Mementos. 


Zero, 


Zeros. 



Buffalo, 
Calico, 



Buffaloes. 
Calicoes. 



Echo, 



Echoes. 



276 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Sing. 


PlU. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Embargo, 


Embargoes. 


Mulatto, 


Mulattoes. 


Grotto, 


Grottoes. 


Negro, 


Negroes. 


Hero, 


Heroes. 


Portico, 


Porticoes. 


Hoopoo, 


Hoopoes, 


Potato, 


Potatoes. 


Innuendo, 


Innuendoes. 


Tomato, 


Tomatoes. 


Motto, 


Mottoes. 


Tornado, 


Tornadoes. 


Mosquito, 


Mosquitoes. 


Volcano, 


Volcanoes. 



15. Examples of Number Forms of the Ninth Class. 

Words which, ending in the Singular Form with y preceded by a consonant, 
change y into I and then add es to form the Plural. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Ally, 


Allies. 


Fairy, 


Fairies. 


Battery, 


Batteries. 


Fancy, 


Fancies. 


Country, 


Countries. 


Glory, 


Glories. 


County, 


Counties. 


Lady, 


Ladies. 


City, 


Cities. 


Lily, 


Lilies. 


Daily, 


Dailies. 


Mystery, 


Mysteries. 



16. Examples of Number Forms of the Tenth Class. 

Words which, ending in the Singular Form icith y preceded by a vowel, retain 
y and add only S in the Plural. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Alley, 


Alleys. 


Money, 


Moneys. 


Assay, 


Assays. 


Monkey, 


Monkeys. 


Attorney, 


Attorneys. 


Sunday, .. 


Sundays. 


Chimney, 


Chimneys. 


Tray, 


Trays. 


Essay, 


Essays. 


Turkey, 


Turkeys. 


Kidney, 


Kidneys. 


Valley, 


Valleys. 


17. 


Examples of Number F 


)EMS OF THE ELEV 


exth Class. 


Words which, ending in the Singular . 


Form with f or fe, 


change to ye 




PI 


iral. 




Sing. 


PlU. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Beef, 


Beeves. 


Self, 


Selves. 


Calf, 


Calves. 


Sheaf, 


Sheaves. 


Elf, 


Elves. 


Shelf, 


Shelves. 


Half, 


Halves. 


Staff, 


Staves. 


Knife, 


Knives. 


Thief, 


Thieves. 


Leaf, 


Leaves. 


Wharf, 


Wharves. 


Life, 


Lives. 


Wife, 


Wives. 


Loaf, 


Loaves. 


Wolf, 


Wolves. 



18. Examples of Number Forms of the Twelfth Class. 

Word* which, ending in the Singular Form with F or Ft:, form tht Plural in the 

regular way. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Belief, 


Beliefs. 


Chief, 


Chiefs. 


Brief, 


Briefs. 


Dwarf, 


Dwarfs. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



277 



Sing. 


Phi. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Fife, 


Fifes. 


Reef, 


Reefs. 


Grief, 


Griefs. 


Roof, 


Roofs. 


Gulf, 


Gulfs. 


Safe, 


Safes. 


Hoof, 


Hoofs, 


Scarf, 


Scarfs. 


Handerchief, 


Handerchiefs. 


Strife, 


Strifes 


Proof, 


Proofs. 


Waif, 


Waifs. 



19. Examples of Number Forms of the Thirteenth Class. 
Words that change their meaning in the Plural. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Color, 


Colors. 


Remainder, 


Remains. 


Compass, 


Compasses. 


Salt, 


Salts. 


Corn, 


Corns. 


Spectacle, 


Spectacles 


Ground, 


Grounds. 


Time, 


Times. 


Iron, 


Irons. 


Domino, 


Dominoes. 


Lead, 


Leads. 


Stay, 


Stays. 


Manner, 


Manners. 


Good, 


Goods. 



20. Examples of Number Forms of fhe Fourteenth Class. 

Letters and characters which form the Plural by annexing an apostrophe and s in 
the same manner as in the Possessive Case. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


s, 


s's. 


% 


Vs. 


4, 


4's. 



Sing. 



Plu. 
x's. 

*'s. 

+>. 



21. Examples of Number Forms of the Fifteenth Class. 

Compound words that vary the principal word, or that which woidd express the 
unrestricted meaning alone. 
Plu. 



Sing. 
Aid-de-camp, 
Attorney-at-law, 
Billet-doux, 
Commander-in- 
chief, 
Court-martial, 
Court -yard, 
Cousin-german, 
Cupful, 
Cup full, . 
Dormouse, 
Father-in-law, 
Fellow-servant, 
Fisherman, 
Forget-me-not, 
Goose-quill, 



Aids-de-camp. 
Attorneys-at-law. 
Billets-doux. 
Commanders-in- 
chief. 
Courts-martial. 
Court-yards. 
Cousins-german. 
Cupfuls. 
Cups full. 
Dormice. 
Fathers-in-law. 
Fellow-servants. 
Fishermen. 
Forget-me-nots. 
Goose-quills. 



Sing. 
Handful, 
Hand full, 
Hanger-on, 
Knight-errant, 
Maid-servant, 
Man-eater, 
Man-of-war, 
Man-trap, 
Mouthful, 
Pianoforte, 
Portemonnaie, 
Spoonful, 
Spoon full, 
Step-son, 
Tete-a-tete,, 
Toothbrush, 



Plu. 
Handfuls. 
Hands full. 
Hangers-on. 
Knights-errant. 
Maid-servants. 
Man-eaters. 
Men-of-war. 
Man-traps. 
Mouthfuls. 
Pianofortes. 
Portemonnaies. 
Spoonfuls. 
Spoons full. 
Step-sons. 
Tete-a-tetes. 
Toothbrushes. 



278 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



22. Examples of Number Forms of the Sixteenth Class. 

Proper names, preceded by titles, which vary either the title or the name, and 

compound words that vary both ivords. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Miss Watson, 


Misses Watson. 


Master Stanley, 


Master Stanleys 


Miss Lake, 


Miss Lakes. 


Man-servant, 


Men-servants. 


Master Hicks, 


Masters Hicks. 


Woman-singer, 


Women-singers. 



23. Examples of Number Forms of the Seventeenth Class. 
Words adopted from foreign languages, most of which still retain their or 
Plural Forms only. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Analysis, 


Analyses. 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses. 


Antithesis, 


Antitheses. 


Ignis fatuus, 


Ignes fatui. 


Appendix, 


Appendixes, 


Madame, 


Mesdames. 




Appendices. 


Magus, 


Magi. 


Automaton, 


Automatons, 


Memorandum, 


Memorandums, 




Automata. 




Memoranda. 


Axis, 


Axes. 


Monsieur, 


Messieurs. 


Bandit, 


Bandits, 


Nebula, 


Nebulae. 




Banditti. 


Oasis, 


Oases. 


Basis, . 


Bases. 


Parenthesis, 


Parentheses. 


Beau, 


Beaus, 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena. 




Beaux. 


Radius, 


Radiuses, 


Cherub, 


Cherubs, 




Radii. 




Cherubim. 


Seraph, 


Seraphs, 


Crisis, 


Crises. 




Seraphim. 


Datum, 


Data. 


Stratum, 


Stratums, 


Ellipsis, 


Ellipses. 




Strata. 


Erratum, 


Errata. 


Synopsis, 


Synopses. 


Focus, 


Foci. 


Terminus, 


Termini. 


Fungus, 


Funguses, 


Vertebra, 


Vertebras. 




Fungi. 


Vortex, 


Vortexes, 


Genus, 


Genera. 




Vortices. 



24. Examples of Number Forms of the Eighteenth Class. 
Words that form the Plural by a change of structure, and are irregular. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Child, 


Children, 


Mouse, 


Mice. 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Mr. 


Messrs. 


Goose, 


Geese, 


Ox, 


Oxen. 


Louse, 


Lice. 


Tooth, 


Teeth. 


Man, 


Men. 


Woman, 


Women. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



279 



25. Examples of Number Forms of the Fifth Class. 

Words of two Plural Forms differing in meaning, and others with only one 
Form, with two or more meanings. 

Plu., with definition. 
Brothers, of the same family. 
Brethren, of the same society. 
Cannons, enumerated singly. 
Cannon, taken collectively. 
Church, the aggregate of believers. 
Churches, buildings, cathedrals. 
Colors, different shades. 
Colors, flag or flags. 
Customs, habits. 

Customs, port duties for revenue. 
Dies, for cutting threads or screws. 
Dice, for the game so called. 
English, the nation. 
Englishmen, several individuals. 
Fishes, enumerated as individuals. 
Fish, taken collectively. 
Feet, in measurement. 
Foot, infant^; or, soldiers on foot. 
Genii, good spirits. 
Geniuses, men of versatile powers. 
Grounds, premises surrounding a mansion. 
Grounds, dregs. 
Grounds, reasons. 
Head, animals taken collectively. 
Heads, of departments; or, receptacles of brains. 
Horse, cavalry; or, soldiers on horseback. 
Horses, more than one horse. 
• Indices, signs in Algebra. 

Indexes, references for the contents. 

Irish, the nation. 

Irishmen, several individuals. 

Letters, characters composing a word. 

Letters, correspondence. 

Letters, parts and learning. 

Pains, aches. 

Pains, care. 

Pence, total value estimated in pence. 

Pennies, coins of this denomination. 

Sail, vessels taken collectively. 

Sails, more than one sail or sheet of canvas. 

Scotch, the nation. 

Scotchmen, several individuals. 



Sing. 
Brother, 

Cannon, 

Church, 

Color, 

Custom, 

Die, 

Englishman, 

Fish, 

Foot, 

Genius, 

Ground, 

Head, 

Horse, 

Index, 

Irishman, 

Letter, 

Pain, 
Penny, 
Sail, 
Scotchman, 



280 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Rule I. In all words in which the vowels e and i are com- 
bined with v, ei follows e, and ie any other letter. 

Belief, Deceit, Grieve, Relief, 

Believe, Deceitful, Grievous, Relieve, 

Believer, Deceive, Perceive, Reprieve, 

Conceit, Deceiver, Receive, Retrieve, 

Conceive, Grief, Receiver, Sieve. 

Rule II. Monosyllables ending with a single consonant that 
is preceded by a single vowel double the final consonant when 
they take an additional syllable commencin 



Monosyllables. 


Derivatives. 


Bat, 


Battery. 


Beg, 


Beggar. 


Bid, 


Bidding. 


But, 


Butted. 


Can, 


Canned. 


Chip, 


Chipping. 


Cup, 


Cupping. 


Cut, 


Cutter. 


Fat, 


Fatty. 


Hot, 


Hotter. 


Knot, 


Knotty. 


Net, 


Netted. 


Pin, 


Pinned. 



commencing 


with a vowel. 


Monosyllables. 


Derivatives. 


Put, 


Putting. 


Red, 


Reddish. 


Big, 


Rigging. 


Rob, 


Robbery. 


Rot, 


Rotten. 


Run, 


Runner. 


Sip, 


Sipped. 


Sit, 


Sitting. 


Stem, 


Stemming. 


Tan, 


Tannery. 


Tip, 


Tipping. 


Whip, 


Whipped. 


Wit, 


Witty. 



Rule III. Words of more than one syllable 
ultimate, ending with a single consonant that 
single vowel, double the final consonant on 
tional syllable commencing with a vowel. 



Words. 
Begin, 
Beset, 
Cavil, 
Chisel, 
Commit, 
Compel, 
Confer, 
Cover, 
Covet, 
Devil, 



Derivatives. 

Beginner. 

Besetting. 

Caviler. 

Chiseled. 

Committee. 

Compelled. 

Conferring. 

Covering. 

Covetous. 

Devilish. 



Words. 
Differ, 
Forbid, 
Hover, 
Infer, 
Offer, 
Permit, 
Rebel, 
Reckon, 
Shovel, 
Transfer, 



accented on the 
is preceded by a 
taking an addi- 



Derivatives. 
Difference. 
Forbidding. 
Hovering. 
Inferred. 
Offered. 
Permitted. 
Rebellious. 
Reckoning. 
Shoveling. 
Transferred. 



Rule IV. When a diphthong or a digraph representing one 
vowel sound precedes the final consonant of any word, the 
latter is not doubled upon adding a syllable beginning with a 
vowel. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



281 



Words. 


Derivatives. 


Words. 


Derivatives 


Bawl, 


Bawled. 


Green, 


Greenish. 


Boil, 


Boiler. 


Haul, 


Hauling. 


Clown, 


Clownish. 


Join, 


Joiner. 


Daub, 


Dauber. 


Read, 


Reader. 


Drown, 


Drowning. 


Rout, 


Routed. 


Feed, 


Feeding. 


Seal, 


Sealed. 


Feel, 


Feeling. 


Sheep, 


Sheepish. 


Flood, 


Flooded. 


Soap, 


Soapy. 


Fool, 


Foolish. 


Soil, 


Soiling. 


Greed, 


Greedy. 


Toil, 


Toiler. 



Kule V. The letters f and 1 at the end of monosyllables 
that contain only one vowel immediately preceding them are 
always doubled except in the first four words following: 



Clef, 


Puff, 


Off, 


Muff, 


If, 


Staff, 


Stuff, 


. Bull, 


Of, 


Cuff, 


Full, 


Stall, 


Sol, 


Call, 


Fall, 


Rill, 


All, 


Doll, 


Chaff, 


Gaff, 


Mill, 


Kill, 


Luff, 


Sniff, 


Knoll, 


Still, 


Bell, 


Pill, 


Toll, 


Knell, 


Sell, 


Dell, 


Roll, 


Bill, 


Till, 


Bluff, 


Cliff, 


Buff, 


Snuff, 


Hill. 



Kule VI. The letter S, except in the Possessive Case, or Plu- 
ral of a Noun, or the Third Person Singular of a Verb, when 
placed at the end of monosyllables that contain only one vowel 
immediately preceding it, is always doubled except in the first 
ten words following and a few others that are unimportant: 

Floss, Press, 

Gloss, Bless, 

Glass, Bliss, 

Kiss, Tress, 

Miss, Truss, 

Mass, Less, 

Moss, Dress, 

Muss, Dross, 

Mess, Lass, 

Cress, Loss. 

Eule VII. Besides f, 1, and S, the only consonants that are 
ever doubled at the end of a word are b, d, g, m, n, p, r, t, and 

z; and the following list includes almost all such words: 



As, 


Pass, 


Gas, 


Puss, 


Has, 


Boss, 


Was,' 


Hiss, 


Yes, 


Grass, 


His, 


Cross, 


Is, 


Gross, 


Thus, 


Truss 


This, 


Fuss, 


Us, 


Bass, 



282 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Ebb, 


Scomm, 


Birr, 


Plitt, 


Add, 


Mumm, 


Shirr, 


Smitt, 


Odd, 


Inn, 


Skirr, 


Butt, 


Rudd, 


Bunn, 


Burr, 


Fizz, 


Bigg, 


Wapp, 


Hurr, 


Fuzz, 


Egg, 


Gnarr, 


Murr, 


Buzz, 


Snigg, 


Parr, 


Purr, 


Huzz, 


Lamm, 


Err, 


Mitt, 


Muzz. 



The words net, let, and set must never have two t's. 

Rule VIII. Monosyllables in which the vowel is followed by 
O representing the sound of k, except in the first ten words fol- 
lowing, must have k inserted after the O: 



Lac, 


Black, 


Dock, 


Knack, 


Sac, 


Block, 


Duck, 


Knick, 


Talc, 


Brick, 


Hack, 


Neck, 


Zinc, 


Crack, 


Lack, 


Pack, 


Ploc, 


Crock, 


Lick, 


Peck, 


Roc, 


Chick, 


Lock, 


Pick, 


Soc, 


Chuck, 


Luck, 


Quick, 


Arc, 


Check, 


Mock, 


Quack, 


Marc, 


Deck, 


Muck, 


Rack, 


Fisc, 


Dick, 


Knock, 


Wreck. 



Rule IX. Words of more than one syllable ending with ic 
or iae, formerly ended with k, are now written without it, ex- 
cept the first word in the following list: 



Derrick, 


Belgic, 


Cardiac, 


Ecstatic, 


Traffic, 


Hectic, 


Pharisaic, 


Cosmetic, 


Cubic, 


Arctic, 


Algebraic, 


Platonic, 


Music, 


Despotic, 


Panic, 


Mechanic, 


Maniac, 


Catholic, 


Graphic, 


Ferric, 


Zodiac, 


Prolific, 


Rheumatic, 


Tartaric, 


Public, 


Specific, 


Stomachic, 


Exotic, 


Colic, 


Asiatic, 


Puritanic, 


Exoteric, 


Frolic, 


Mosaic, 


Arithmetic, 


Esoteric, 


Rubric, 


Farradaic, 


Mimic, 


Hysteric. 



Rule X. "Words of more than one syllable ending with the 
sound of k, when the c is preceded by any vowel except i or ia, 
commonly end with ck, except the first seven words in the fol- 
lowing list: 

Almanac, Limbec, Lilac, Havoc, 

Sandarac, Zebec, Manioc, Bullock, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



283 



Hillock, 

Mattock, 

Barrack, 

Arrack, 

Burdock, 



Attack, 

Hackmatack, 

Hardtack, 

Bootblack, 

Haversack, 



Bootjack, 

Tamarack, 

Bishoprick, 

Bailiwick, 

Limerick, 



Shamrock, 

Fetlock, 

Cassock, 

Padlock, 

Benedick. 



Rule XI. Many words that were once spelled with the ter- 
mination re are now written with er; but the first six words of 
the following list still retain re to preserve the " hard " sound 
of e and g: 



Acre, Center, Miter, Ocher, 

Chancre, Centering, Niter, Scepter, 

Lucre, Theater, Saltpeter, Somber, 

Nacre, Amphitheater, Saber, Specter, 

Massacre, Meter, Mauger, Sepulcher, 

Ogre, Meager, Luster, Tiber. 

Rule XII. Most words derived by adding a syllable that be- 
gins with a vowel to words ending with a vowel sound retain 
all the letters that represent the latter; thus, 

Huzza, 

Agree, 
Disagree, 
Weigh, 
Through, 

Rule XIII. Derivatives formed by prefixing one or more 
syllables to words ending with a double consonant retain both 
consonants. The first word in this list is an exception: 



Huzzaed. 


Dough, 


Doughy, 


Agreeable/ 


Echo, 


Echoed. 


Disagreeing. 


Woo, 


Wooes. 


Weighing. 


Bow, 


Bowed. 


Throughout. 


Clay, 


Clayey. 



Till, 


Until. 


Fill, 


Fulfill. 


Staff, 


Tipstaff. 


Roll, 


Enroll. 


Buff, 


Rebuff. 


Boss, 


Emboss. 


Fall, 


Befall. 


Cross, 


Recross. 


Thrall, 


Disinthrall. 


Call, 


Recall. 


Tell, 


Foretell. 


Stall, 


Forestall 


Sell, 


Undersell. 


Gross. 


Engross. 



Rule XIV. Compound words, formed by connecting two or 
more simple words, retain all the letters of the original words, 
except the first twenty-eight words in the following list, and 
words ending with ful, as willful, skillful, etc. : 



Almighty, 


Already, 


A Uogether, 


Therewithal, 


Almost, 


Also, 


A Iways, 


Wherewithal, 


Alone, 


A Ithough, 


Withal, 


Welcome, 



284 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Welfare, 


Rueful, 


Standish, 


Tasteless, 


Candlemas, 


Woeful, 


Wherever, 


Soulless, 


Michaelmas, 


Chilblain, 


Four-in-hand, 


Brother-in-law, 


Lammas, 


Fulfill, 


Save-all, 


Wide-open, 


Christmas, 


Namesake, 


Smell-less, 


Loud-mouthed 


Artful, 


Neckerchief, 


Skill-less, 


Whole-souled, 


Hateful, 


Numskull, 


Skull-less, 


Open-eyed. 



Rule XY. Words ending with e silent, upon taking an addi- 
tional syllable beginning with a vowel, drop the final e in all 
derivatives except the first twenty words in the following list: 



Hoeing, 


Peaceable, 


Bridal, 


Salable, 


Shoeing, 


Noticeable, 


Shaping, 


Forcible, 


Toeing, 


Manageable, 


Shaking, 


Fleecy, 


Dyeing, 


Changeable, 


Plumage, 


Icicle, 


Singeing, 


Chargeable, 


Grievance, 


Racing, 


Sjpringeing, 


Advantageous, 


Movable, 


Truism, 


Swingeing, 


Courageous, 


Lovable, 


Arrival, 


Tingeing, 


Outrageous, 


Riding, 


Blamable, 


Lineage, 


Mortgageor, 


Savior, 


Coursing, 


Lineal, 


Usage, 


Hating, 


Milage, 


Pineal, 


Guidance, 


Coming, 


Raging. 



Rule XVI. "When any word has more than one consonant 
after the last vowel sound, the final consonant is not doubled on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a vowel. 



Words. 


Derivatives. 


Words. 


Derivatives. 


Girl, 


Girlish. 


Approach, 


Approaching 


Whirl, 


Whirling. 


Return, 


Returned. 


Find, 


Finder. 


Infirm, 


Infirmary. 


Bind, 


Bindery. 


Reform, 


Reformer. 


Found, 


Founding. 


Grind, 


Grinders. 


Grand , 


Grander, 


Attend, 


Attendance. 


Broach, 


Broached. 


Abound, 


Abundance. 


Report, 


Reporting. 


Round, 


Rounded. 


Record, 


Recorded. 


Flirt, 


Flirtation. 


Confirm, 


Confirmed. 


Court, 


Courting. 



PART VI. 



CORRESPONDENCE 



Containing Examples of Letters written in each of the Forms of the Verb, 
and rewritten or changed from one Form into another, embracing Business 
and Friendly Correspondence, Formal Notes, Messages, Invitations, Promis- 
sory Notes, Inland Bills of Exchange, Drafts, Checks, Orders, Receipts, and 
Wills. 

In this Part it is designed to show the great practical utility of the con- 
tents of Part I., and to apply to ordinary use and every-day purposes the 
principles therein set forth. 



286 CORRESPONDENCE. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

The study of Grammar should not only enable us to make 
use of elegant language in conversation, but also to express 
our thoughts correctly in our written communications. The 
specimens of Correspondence here given will illustrate the va- 
riety of style that is possible, and the great utility of a correct 
knowledge of the three leading Forms of the Verb — the Active 
or Common, the Passive, and the Progressive. These have 
been so thoroughly set forth and explained in the foregoing- 
Parts that we shall make no attempt at explanation, but simply 
show by actual examples the necessity for variety of style and 
command of language. 

In these Letters will be found a sufficient number of illustra- 
tions to serve as models. " One swallow does not make a sum- 
mer," nor will the writing of one or two letters make a good 
correspondent. Perspicuity of style and terseness of expres- 
sion can only be attained by a thorough and exhaustive study 
of the three great generic Forms — the Common, Passive, and 
Progressive. Additional examples, unlimited in number, 
should be composed, illustrating the same principles that are 
elucidated in the following specimens. After completing the 
course of study contained in this volume the pupil will have 
only just entered upon the boundless territory that it will be 
his delight and pleasure to explore. He will merely have been 
furnished with the "implements of his profession," so to speak; 
and with these it is expected that during a life-time of useful- 
ness he will never cease to study and compare the style of cele- 
brated authors, and make himself proficient in the higher and 
more aesthetic departments of language and comparative phi- 
lology. 

HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 

The essential elements of every letter or communication are : 

1. The location of the writer. 

2. The date, or time of the writing. 

3. The address and salutation. 

4. The contents of the letter. 

5. The conclusion and signature. 

6. The folding and enveloping. 

7. The superscription. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 287 

If any one of these is omitted the letter must be defective. 
The relative position of the parts will be seen in the examples, 
as well as the complimentary address suitable in the different 
cases cited. When two complimentary titles have the same 
force of expression, never use both. For example, do not say 
" Mr. G. B. Bartlett, Esq.," " Dr. Johnson, M. D.," or " Hon. 
Mr. King, Esq.;" though " Bev. E. B. Strong, D. D.," is not 
objectionable. In the great majority of cases the plain name, 
without any title whatever, is to be preferred, as in the exam- 
ple on page 288; the exceptions being official or professional 
titles of respect, courtesy, or distinction. The title " Mr." is 
preferable to " Esquire," and when the person addressed pos- 
sesses titles, the most distinguished one implies the existence 
of the others and should be used alone. 

SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNERS. 

Commence actual correspondence with some friend. Take 
one of these examples as a guide. Write the date on the first 
line, ending at the right margin. Write your friend's name at 
the left, omitting a line between it and the date, commencing 
as far from the left margin as the edge of the writing. Add 
the complimentary address, beginning each succeeding expres- 
sion about an inch farther to the right than the preceding one, 
and ending with a colon. Then compose and write the con- 
tents of your letter. Make a new paragraph with each change 
of the subject. Attach your signature after the complimentary 
conclusion. 

Instead of at once folding and addressing your letter, study 
the contents and style of construction. Endeavor to select such 
forms of expression as will enable you to dispense with the use 
of the Pronoun "I," and reconstruct each sentence several 
times until it assumes a smooth, flowing style. 

Study the letters received from your correspondent, and com- 
pare the style with what you would have used, by rewriting 
them in a different form. Submit the letters occasionally to 
your teacher, or any one that is competent to make corrections; 
and continue this until you shall have acquired a free style of 
correspondence and a good command of language. 



288 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



In order to avoid being* too formal, the concluding paragraph 
may begin with a Present Participle, such as Relying, Hoping, 
Trusting, or Waiting. The first of these expressions should 
be followed by on or upon, the second by that, for, or to, the 
third by that, and the last by for. 

To fold a letter written on a single half sheet: 1.' Place 'it 
on the table before you with the heading facing you. 2. Fold 
it once by applying the two upper corners to the two lower. 
3. Fold it with two more folds by bringing up each side aed 
turning it over the center, so as to divide the width of the page 
into three parts. It is then ready for the envelope. 

Write the superscription on the envelope so as to make it end 
at the lower right corner, and make it as compact as possible 
without crowding. Place the postage stamp on the upper right 
corner for the convenience of the postmaster. Regard as the 
upper side of the envelope that which has the flap for sealing it. 

EXAMPLE OF A SUPERSCRIPTION. 
Shoiving the top of the envelope, with the flap. 




No. 120 Sutter Street. 

* 



Henry Barnard, 

San Francisco, 




[Stamp.] 


C 


?al. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 289 

SUPERSCRIPTION ON ENVELOPE. 

1. Name of person addressed. 

2. City, village, or town. 

3. State or country. 

4. Street and number, if known, on lower left corner; or, if 
not a large city, write the county on the left margin instead of 
the street and number. 

If it is desired to have lines appear upon the envelope, place 
inside of it a piece of paper cut to the exact size and ruled 
with heavy black lines. These will appear through the paper 
with sufficient distinctness. 

To envelop the letter and write the superscription is a very 
simple thing, but it nevertheless affords an opportunity for the 
display of taste and cleanliness. Eemove every trace of ink or 
pencil dust from the fingers by washing them, and take care not 
to soil the paper in any way, or be guilty of blots and careless 
blunders. 

A word accidentally omitted may be interlined by using a 
caret; but if many corrections are required (or even for the sake 
of one, if you have time) it is much better to rewrite the whole 
letter. By imposing this duty as a penalty or punishment, and 
thus, perhaps, depriving yourself of some pleasure, you possess 
the most effectual means of remedying habits of carelessness. 

LETTER FROM CONSIGNEE TO CONSIGNOR. 

Written in the Active Form. 

San Francisco, Cal., May 20, 1880. 
H. S. Harvey, Esq., 

No. 225 State street, Chicago, 111. : 
Dear Sir — I have just received your esteemed favor of the 14th inst., 
which you wrote from Sioux City, and have noted its contents. 

In reply, I have the pleasure of informing you that I have sold all your 
goods, and that I have credited you with (#2,000) two thousand dollars, which 
I realized as your net proceeds, and which I hold subject to your order. I 
inclose an account sales. 

Prices advance every day, and I have no doubt that I can realize a very 
handsome profit upon another consignment of clothing, if you can send it at 
once. 

Hoping to hear from you again at an early date, with advices of another 
shipment, I remain, 

Respectfully and truly, 
13 H. Barnard. 



290 CORRESPONDENCE. 

THE SAME LETTER. 
Reconstructed in the Passive Form. 

San Francisco, Cal., May 20, 1880. 
H. S. Harvey, Esq., 

No. 225 State street, Chicago, 111. : 
Dear Sir — Your esteemed favor of the 14th inst., which was written 
from Sioux City, has just been received, and its contents noted. 

It gives me pleasure, in reply, to inform you that all your goods have been 
sold, and that you have been credited with ($2,000) two thousand dollars, 
which was realized as your net proceeds, and is held subject to your order. 
An account sales is inclosed. 

Prices are advancing every day, and there is no doubt that a very hand- 
some profit can be realized upon another consignment of clothing, if it can be 
sent at once. 

Hoping to hear from you again at an early date with advices of another 
shipment, I remain, 

Respectfully and truly, 

H. Barnard. 

Here we have a striking illustration of the great utility of a 
thorough knowledge of the principles enunciated in Parts II. 
and IV., aud illustrated in Part I. The above letter, as first 
written, is almost exclusively confined to the Active Form. 
Hence it is egotistical in the extreme, and offensive to • the 
reader, who must be conscious of the apparent effort to tell 
that "I" did it all. 

A comparison of this objectionable style with the smooth, 
pleasant, and euphonious language of the transposition follow- 
ing it, demonstrates the great superiority of the Passive over 
the Active Form, when the writer is making allusions to him- 
self. This accounts for the elaborate manner in which these 
different styles are set forth in Part I., and shows the impor- 
tance of the Sixth Rule of Syntax. 

LETTER FROM CONSIGNOR TO CONSIGNEE. 
Written in an objectionable style. 

Chicago, III., June 1, 18S0. 
H. E. Starbird, Esq., 

No. 120 Montgomery street. San Francisco, Cal. : 
Dear Sir — I have received your welcome letter of the 20th ult., and, in re- 
ply, I thank you for the advices it contained. I was well satisfied with the 
sales. 

I acted upon your suggestion, and have to-day forwarded another shipment 
of clothing. I did not prepay the freight (though I could ha\ c sa\ ed a small 



CORRESPONDENCE. 291 

amount by so doing), as I required all the money that I could collect for 
meeting some very pressing obligations that matured. 

I marked the goods with a "diamond B," as before, by which you can 
identify them, according to the invoice which I inclose. 

I have not placed any limit on the price, as I have the most implicit confi- 
dence in you. Therefore I shall be satisfied with the result if you effect 
sales to the best advantage, as your judgment may dictate. 

Hoping to receive quick returns, and an account sales as satisfactory as the 
last, I remain, Respectfully and truly, 

Horace Davis. 

THE SAME LETTER. 

Reconstructed. 

Chicago, III., June 1, 1880. 
H. E. Starbird, Esq., 

No. 120 Montgomery street, San Francisco, Cal. : 
Dear Sir — Your welcome letter of the 20th ult. has been received. Please 
accept thanks for the advices contained in it. The last sales were very satis- 
factory. 

Acting upon your suggestion, another shipment of clothing has this day 
been forwarded. The freight was not prepaid (though a small amount could 
have been saved by so doing), as all the money that could be collected was 
required to meet some very pressing obligations that were maturing. 

As before, the goods were marked with a "diamond B," by which they can 
be identified, according to the inclosed invoice. 

No limit has been placed upon the price, as you have my most implicit con- 
fidence. Therefore the result will satisfy me if sales are effected to the best 
advantage, in accordance with your judgment. 

Hoping to receive an account sales as satisfactory as the last, I remain, 
Respectfully and truly, 

Horace Davis. 

The elimination of the objectionable ego is here shown to 
good advantage. This is not always done by substituting the 
Passive for the Active Form. A little ingenuity, with con- 
stant practice, will soon enable any one to become an expert at 
business correspondence. Compare this letter with the exer- 
cises under Rule VI., page 242. 

APPLICATION FOR A POSITION. 

Written in the Active Form. 

Sax Francisco, Cal., August 20, 1880. 
Messrs. Murphy, Grant & Co., City: 

Gentlemen — Excuse the liberty I take in addressing you without a formal 
introduction, as I did not wish to intrude unless I felt sure that I could be of 
service to you. 



292 CORRESPONDENCE 

I desire to obtain a position as salesman. I have had fifteen years' experi- 
ence in the dry goods business in Chicago and New York, by which I have 
obtained a thorough knowledge of the trade. I can give you satisfactory 
references at a personal interview. 

As I want a permanent position more than I need money at present, I will 
allow you to determine what salary I shall receive after a few weeks' trial, 
trusting that your appreciation of faithful services and your reputation for 
fair dealing will insure full compensation. 

Should you require any further assistance than you already have, please 
address me at the Baldwin Hotel; and if not, pardon me for thus occupying 
your valuable time and attention. 

Hoping for a favorable reply, I remain, 

Respectfully and truly, 

R. R. Nicholson. 

THE SAME LETTER AS THE PRECEDING. 
Shoiving a preferable construction. 

San Francisco, Cal., August 20, 1880. 
Messrs. Murphy, Grant & Co., City: 

Gentlemen — Please excuse the liberty thus taken in addressing you with- 
out a formal introduction; it was my wish not to intrude unless my services 
were likely to be needed. 

It is my desire to obtain a position as a salesman. Fifteen years' experi- 
ence in the dry goods business in Chicago and New York has enabled me to 
acquire a thorough knowledge of the trade. Satisfactory references can be 
furnished, when desired, at a personal interview. 

As a permanent position is more important to me at present than the im- 
mediate acquisition of money, you will be permitted to determine my salary 
after a sufficient trial, as your appreciation of faithful services and your repu- 
tation for fair dealing will insure full compensation. 

Should you require any further assistance than you already have, please 
address me at the Baldwin Hotel; and if not, pardon me for thus trespassing 
upon your valuable time and attention. 

Trusting that you may be able to give me some encouragement, I remain, 
Respectfully and truly, 

R. R. Nicholson. 

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

Introducing a friend. 

No. 125 State Street, 

Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 18S0. 
Mr. Robert Anderson, 

Barbadoes, West Indies: 
Dear Friend— Allow us to introduce to your favorable acquaintance Oapt. 
George F. Mutch, master of the bark Gazelle, to arrive in your port in due 
time. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 293 

As his ship will be detained for some weeks, please extend to him the 
same courtesy and attention that would be given to a member of our firm if 
present. By personal association with him you will discover that he is a gen- 
tleman of good education, and one whose company is always desirable. 

You may feel, as heretofore, at perfect liberty to command our services, 
knowing that we shall take pleasure in honoring all your letters of introduc- 
tion. 

Respectfully and truly, 

Bird, Perkins & Job. 

LETTEE OF INTEODUCTION. 
Introducing a brother (or other near relative). 
Prof. P. A. Espina: 

Allow me to introduce to you my brother, Alexander B. Barnard, who 
wishes a brief interview. 

Respectfully, your friend, 

H. Barnard. 

LETTEE OF INTEODUCTION. 

To be used at home. 

Minneapolis, Minn., August 20, 1880. 
Samuel C. Gale, Esq. : 

Dear Sir — This will introduce to you Mr. Frank Barnard, of Mankato, 
Minn., who will call on you for some information and advice. 

Anything you may be able to do for him will be considered as if done for 
myself, and reciprocated at the earliest opportunity. 

As ever, your friend, 

B. B. Marshall. 

LETTEE OF INTEODUCTION. 

To be used at home. 

Minneapolis, Minn., August 20, 1880. 
H. H. Kimball, M. D. : 

Dear Doctor — Allow me to introduce Mr. Levi Patterson, one of my most 
intimate and highly esteemed friends, who will make known his business. 

Please assist him to the full extent to which you would feel at liberty to 
aid myself under similar circumstances. 

Hoping that I may at some time have an opportunity to do you a similar 
kindness, I remain, 

Yours truly, 

Thomas Lowry. 

LETTEE OF INTEODUCTION TO A FOEMEE PASTOE. 

San Francisco, Cal., August 20, 1880. " 
Rev. Thomas Marshall, 

St. Louis, Mo.: 
Rev. and Dear Sir — I take the liberty of introducing my friend, Mr. William 
F. Clarke, who has been here, by my invitation, on a visit of several weeks. 



294 CORRESPONDENCE. 

Upon his return east he will locate in your city, and will probably unite 
with your society, having always been an active church member. 

I can assure you that Mr. Clarke, besides being a competent and reliable 
accountant, is a gentlemen of liberal, education, whose acquaintance I have 
enjoyed for twelve years, and that you need not hesitate to recommend him 
most confidently to any one who may need his services. 
Respectfully and truly, 

Judson Davis. 
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

To be used abroad. 

. Minneapolis, Minn., August 20, 1880. 
Mark Baldwin, Esq., 

San Francisco, Cal. : 
Dear Sir — This will introduce to you my friend, Mr. George Gellerson 
who is about to remove to your city, and is worthy of confidence. 

Any favors that you may show him will be fully appreciated by him as well 
as by myself. 

Respectfully yours, 

John Noble. 

LETTER REQUESTING A EAYOR FROM A FRIEND. 

Written in the Active Form. 

New Ulm, Minn., June 5, 1880. 
Wm. C. Bryant, Esq., 

No. 315 Broadway, New York: 

Dear Sir — I take the liberty of asking you to do me a favor. Appleton 
& Co. have recently issued two new books, entitled "Evidences of the Vast 
Age of the Earth " and "Antiquity of the Human Race," which I desire you 
to purchase for me. 

The notice which I inclose does not give the price, but this you can readily 
ascertain. You may pay the bill when you bu}' the books, and I will remit 
the money by return mail; or, they may send the package by Express, C. 0. 
D., if you and they prefer this. 

I have observed the announcement of another new book which they will 
soon publish. They call it "Death a Blessing and not a Curse." Several 
parties who have examined the advance sheets pronounce it a very ex- 
cellent work, while others declare it to be a book that will strengthen the 
infidel tendency of the age. But the public do not always appreciate works 
of true merit, and therefore we can not determine its value by what peo- 
ple report concerning it. On the contrary, utterly valueless works often 
attain a wide circulation. No doubt the critics will soon give their opinions 
to the world. You may send it also when it appears. 

Thanking you for former favors, and hoping to hear from you at your earli- 
est convenience, I remain, 

Respectfully, your friend, 

Albert Blanchard. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 295 

THE SAME LETTER. 

Principally written in the Passive Form. 

San Francisco, Cal., June 5, 1880. 
Wm. C. Bryant, Esq., 

No. 315 Broadway, New York: 

Dear Sir — Please excuse me for asking you to do me a favor. Two new 
books, entitled "Evidences of the Vast Age of the Earth" and "Antiquity 
of the Human Race," have recently been issued by Appleton & Co., and I 
desire them to be purchased for me. 

The price is not given in the notice which is inclosed, but it can readily be 
ascertained. The bill may be paid when the books are bought, and the 
money will be remitted by return mail; or the package may he sent by Ex- 
press, C. 0. D., if this is preferred. 

The announcement of another new book, which will soon be published by 
them, has already appeared. It is called "Death a Blessing and not a Curse." 
It is pronounced a very excellent work by several parties by whom the ad- 
vance sheets have been examined, while it is declared by others to be a book 
by which the infidel tendency of the age will be strengthened. But works 
of true merit are not always appreciated by the public, and therefore its true 
value can not be determined by what is reported concerning it. On the con- 
trary, a wide circulation is often attained by utterly valueless works. No 
doubt the opinions of the critics will soon be given to the world. It may 
also be sent when it appears. 

Thanking you for former favors, and hoping to hear from you at your earli- 
est convenience, I remain, Respectfully, your friend, 

Albert Blanchard. 

No change lias been made where it would appear unneces- 
sary. 

LETTER REQUESTING INFORMATION. 

To the Principal of 

Barnard's Business College, 

Minneapolis, Minnesota: 
Sir — Please find inclosed a stamp for catalague and circular of your insti- 
tution and such other information as you may be kind enough to write. 
Address me as above, and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Charlie I. Brown. 

REPLY TO THE ABO YE. 

Minneapolis, Minn., August 21, 1880. 
Charlie I. Brown, 

Mankato, Minn. : 
In compliance with your recpiest our catalogue and circular have this day 
been mailed to your address. 



296 CORRESPONDENCE. 

The system of accounts taught by the late H. D. Stratton, one of the 
founders of the Bryant & Stratton chain of colleges, forms the basis of our 
course. It embraces all the modern improvements. The studies of Compo- 
sition, Grammar, Spelling, Mathematics, Penmanship, and the Natural Sci- 
ences are included. 

We issue a Life Scholarship, which entitles the holder to complete the 

course and at airy future time to review and consult upon intricate questions. 

Each applicant has the privilege of attending for a few days free of charge, 

to satisfy himself of the superiority of our methods, and examine the course 

of study. 

Hoping that you will find time to call on us before you make final arrange- 
ments for a course of instruction, we remain, 

Respectfully, etc., 

C. C. Curtiss, 
C W. G. Hyde, 

Proprietors. 
RESPONSE TO AN ADVERTISEMENT. 

New York City, August 20, 18S0. 
"K. L. M.," 

Box 35, Tribune Office, City: 
In reply to your advertisement, which is attached, I take the liberty of 
offering my services. 

My age is eighteen years, and my residence is at No. 305 Bowery, with my 
parents, to whom you are respectfully referred. 

I have no experience in business, but am willing to make myself useful in 
any capacity. This letter is a fair specimen of my current writing, and my 
knowledge of accounts is sufficient to keep a cash book and personal accounts. 
Whatever compensation you may consider my. services worth after one 
week will be accepted, as my chief object is to gain a practical knowledge of 
business. 

Respectfully, 

Frank T. Barker. 

REPLY TO THE ABOVE. 

New York City, August 20, 1880. 
Frank T. Barker: 

Call at the drug store, corner of Broome street and Bowery. 

Stone & Flint. 
ORDER FOR MERCHANDISE. 

Applicant a stranger. 

Lake Forest, III., Aug. 20, 1880. 
Messrs. Field, Leiter & Co. , 

Chicago, 111. : 
GENTLEMEN — Please send me by "way freight" the following bill of goods. 
with terms of payment to accompany the invoice. By permission, you are 
respectfully referred to Messrs. Culver, Page & Hoyne, of your city, with 



CORRESPONDENCE. 297 

whom I am well acquainted. By complying with my request, if references 

are satisfactory, you will oblige, 

Yours truly, 

W. W. Sanderson. 
Order to be filled as above: 

h doz. pair white blankets, cost not to exceed $3 50. 

-| " << " " 8 00. 

5 pes. unbleached cotton, " " 0G§ 

1 gro. assorted spool cotton. 
£ " assorted needles. 

| " zephyr worsted, assorted colors. 

2 " pins, adamant points. 
25 pes. calico, prints, assorted. 

4 rolls carpet, Brussels (same as sample). 
1 " oil cloth, No. 5. 
50 doz. ladies' hose, assorted sizes. 
40 " half hose, assorted sizes. 
10 skeins black silk sewing silk. 
100 pes. ribbons, assorted colors. 

W. W. Sanderson. 

LETTER IN REPLY TO THE ABOVE. 

Chicago, III., August 21, 1S80. 
W. W. Sanderson, Esq., 

Lake Forest, 111. : 
Dear Sir — We have this day filled your order as per accompanying invoice 
and bill of lading. We have drawn on you at thirty days for amount of bill. 
Thanking you for the order, and hoping you will favor us again, we remain, 
Respectfully, 

Field, Leiter & Co. 

ORDER FOR A SPECIAL ARTICLE. 
Accompanied by remittance. 

Minneapolis, Minn., Aug. 20, 1872. 
Mr. R. Barrett, 

Galena, 111. : 
Sir— Inclosed please find P. 0. order for $1.25, for which send one box of 
your "Eye Salve for Granulated Eyelids," one box "C. W. Roback's Pills," 
one pot " Weaver's Cerate," one box " Corn Plasters," and one box "Bunion 
Plasters," large and thick, to C. H. C, care of Albert Lawrence, Winslow 
House, St. Anthony's Falls, Minnesota. 

Gilmantox, Wis., Aug. 20, 1880. 
Barker & Bros., 

Chicago, 111. : 
Gentlemen — Please send me by Express, C. O. D., fifty copies of Prof. 
Barker's Line Engraving Family Record. Address 

George A. Edes, 

Evening Drill, 

Gilmanton, Wis. 



298 CORRESPONDENCE. 

LETTER OF INQUIRY. 

Sterling, Blue Earth Co., Minn., 

August 20, 1880. 
Prof. H. S. Goff, 

Co. Supt. Pub. Schools, 

Mankato, Minn. : 
Sir — Will you be kind enough to inform me when the State Teachers' In- 
stitute for this county will be held. 

It is my desire to attend, and (if fortunate enough to pass the examination) 
to teach during the fall and winter. 

Please state what will be the probable cost, including board, fare, and sta- 
tionery, and any other information that you can give me. 

Inclosed please find a three-cent stamp for answer, and oblige me by reply- 
ing at your earliest convenience. 

Yours respectfully, 

Miss Rose Tomlinson, 

Address as above. 

REPLY TO THE ABO YE. 

Mankato, Blue Earth Co., Minx., 

August 21, 1880. 
Miss Rose Tomlinson, 

Sterling, Blue Earth-Co., Minn.: 
M'd'lle — In reply to your favor of yesterday, you will receive the circular 
issued by the State Department of Public Instruction, giving full particulars 
of all exercises, and names of instructors. 

Board can be had for ($3.50) three dollars and fifty cents a week (half rates) 
at the hotels; but as many as possible will be furnished with accommodations 
free of charge in private families. There will be no charge for stationery. 
Respectfully and truly, 

H. S. Goff, Supt. 

LETTER OE INQUIRY. 

No. 215 State Street, 

Chicago, III., Aug. 14, 1880. 
Albert C. Packard, Esq., 

San Francisco, Cal. : 
Sin — Having been informed that you are familiar with the facts relating to 
the death of our lamented young friend, George S. Cutter, this letter is writ- 
ten, at the request of his aged mother, in order to ascertain the circum- 
stances attending the sad event, and, if possible, the cause. 

Will you kindly communicate to me all that you know concerning it, and 
thus assist in relieving the anguish and distress of his friends and relatives '.' 
By so doing at your earliest convenience you will also greatly oblige, 
Yours truly, 

George Wadsworth. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 299 

REPLY TO THE ABOVE. 
Written principally in the Common Form. 

No. 105 Montgomery Street, 

San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 
George Wadsworth, Esq., 

Chicago, 111. : 
Sir — I have just received your letter of the 14th hist. In reply, I will 
briefly state all the facts concerning the late George S. Cutter, as I received 
them from others or observed for myself. 

He first visited me on the day after his arrival, in July. He informed me 
that he had just bought a large amount of mining stocks. They all thought 
the adventure to be a good one, as the market appeared to have reached the 
lowest possible point. He had invested all his money, and held the stock 
" on a margin.''' ' They considered his success certain, as everybody expected 
an advance. 

But fickle Fortune did not favor his enterprise. Contrary to universal ex- 
pectation, the stock market suffered a serious decline. This compelled him to 
allow the broker to sell his stock, which realized nothing at all, but, on the 
other hand, plunged him deeply and hopelessly in debt. 

His failure so much discouraged him that he neglected other opportunities 
which he might have secured, and sacrificed everything. Nor did this termi- 
nate the unfortunate affair. Would to Heaven it had! The very next intelli- 
gence that we received informed us that the unhappy young man had com- 
mitted suicide ! 

Thus in a single day he lost his fortune, his ambition, and his life. He had 
undertaken too great a task, and had incurred too much risk; and in this way 
he terminated his brief career. 

In conclusion, I must state that we did everything we could for him, and 
that we carefully interred his remains. With the deepest sympathy for his 
poor aged mother and other relatives and friends, I remain, 
Respectfully and truly, 

Albert C. Packard 

THE SAME LETTER. 

A combination of the Active, Passive, and Progressive Forms. 
No. 105 Montgomery Street, 

San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 
George Wadsworth, Esq., 

Chicago, 111. : 
Sir — Your letter of the 14th inst. has just been received. In reply, all the 
facts concerning the late George S. Cutter will be briefly stated, as they were 
received from others or observed by myself. 

He first visited me on the day after his arrival, in July. He informed me 
that a large amount of mining stocks had just been been bought by him. 
The adventure was generally thought to be a good one, as the. lowest possible 



300 CORRESPONDENCE. 

point appealed to have been reached by the market. All his money had been 
invested, and he was holding the stock "on a margin." His success was con- 
sidered certain, as everybody was expecting an advance. 

But his enterprise was not favored by fickle Fortune. Contrary to univer- 
sal expectation, a decline was suffered by the stock market. He was com- 
pelled by this to allow his stock to be sold by the broker, by which not only 
was there nothing at all realized, but, on the other hand, he was plunged 
deeply and hopelessly into debt. 

He was so much discouraged by his failure that he began neglecting other 
opportunities that might have been secured, and everything was sacrificed. 
Nor was the unfortunate affair terminated thus. Would to Heaven it had 
been ! The very next intelligence that was received informed us that suicide 
had been committed by the unhappy young man ! 

Thus in a single day were lost his fortune, his ambition, and his life. Too 
great a task had been undertaken and too much risk incurred; and in this 
way his brief career was terminated. 

In conclusion, it must be stated that everything that could be was done for 
him, and that his remains were carefully interred. With the deepest sympa- 
thy for his poor aged mother and other relatives and friends, allow me to 

remain, 

Respectfully and truly, 

Albert C. Packard. 

LETTER EEOM A YOUNG MAN TO HIS FATHER. 

Written priitcijxdly in the Active Form. 

Carleton College, 
Northfield, Minn., May 20, 1880. 
Dear Fattier: 

It is now almost two years since I left home to attend college; but though 
I have been constantly engaged at my work, I have not neglected, as you can 
testify, to write to mother and yourself, as I promised when leaving you. 

I have spent the time very pleasantly, for I have been thoroughly inter- 
ested in my studies, thanks to my teachers, who are not onl} r well qualified, 
but also kind and courteous. The clays pass almost imperceptibly, and I am 
often surprised that they seem so short. 

I received your last remittance as usual, but I shall be compelled to make 
a further draft upon you for the next month, as we are making arrangements 
to visit the Shattuck Grammar School at Faribault at the end of the term. 
In this, however, I have no doubt you will indulge me, as I have reduced my 
expense account as low as that of any other student in attendance. I shall 
require about ten dollars extra, which please add to the usual amount in the 
next draft. I shall be much gratified if I can accompany the party. I shall 
permit no needless expenditures, and shall have one more to add to the many 
favors that I have already received. 

Please let me know what is your pleasure as soon as you receive this, and I 
shall remain, as ever, 

Your affectionate son, • CHARLIE. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 301 

THE SAME LETTER. 
Reconstructed in the Passive Form. 

Carleton College, 
Northfield, Minn., May 20, 1880. 
Dear Father: 

It is now almost two years since my departure from home to attend col- 
lege; but although constant attention has been demanded by my work, no 
interruption, as you can testify, has been permitted in my correspondence 
with mother and yourself, according to promise on leaving home. 

The time has been spent very pleasantly, for, thanks to my teachers, who 
are not only well qualified, but also kind and courteous, my studies have been 
made thoroughly interesting and attractive. The days pass almost impercep- 
tibly, and it is often surprising that they seem so short. 

Your last remittance Avas received as usual, but circumstances compel me 
to make a further draft upon you for the next month, as arrangements are 
being made for a visit, at the end of the term, to the Shattuck Grammar 
School at Faribault. In this, however, no doubt you will indulge me, as my 
expense account has been reduced below that of any other student in attend- 
ance. Ten dollars extra will be required, which please add to the usual 
amount in the next draft. It will be a source of much gratification to me to 
accompany the party. No needless expenditures will be permitted, and one 
more will be added to the many favors that have already been received. 

Please let me know what is your pleasure as soon as this is received, and 
believe me, as ever, 

Your affectionate son, 

Charlie. 
THE FATHER'S ANSWER. 

Written principally in the Active Form. 

t Rochester, Minn., May 28, 1880. 
My Dear Boy: 

I received your welcome letter of the 20th inst. in due time; -and although 
my business during the day and attendance at meetings in the evening pre- 
vented answering as promptly as usual, yet I have not by any means forgot- 
ten you. You will see by the inclosed draft for ($37.50) thirty-seven dollars 
and fifty cents that I have complied with your request. I have added $12.50 
to the usual amount. 

Though I have to contend with many difficulties and undergo many priva- 
tions in order to give you the great advantage that the well informed possess, 
I am fully compensated for the self-denial that your mother and I submit to 
by the knowledge of your success and the proud and honorable position that 
your education will fit you for. I was deprived of the privileges that you 
enjoy by the untimely death of my father, and am now too old to commence 
a collegiate course; but knowing the disadvantages under which I have strug- 
gled, I would suffer any privation or hardship in order to confer upon you 
that which I have so often desired to possess. And it has often been a source 



302 CORRESPONDENCE. 

of comfort to know that you appreciate all this, and deprive yourself, with- 
out complaint, of many things that the sons of affluence enjoy. 

Everything at home progresses as usual, and we are all anxious to welcome 
you home when your vacation begins. Mother joins me in love to you. 
I remain, as ever, 

Your Affectionate Father. 

THE SAME LETTER. 

Reconstructed in the Passive and Progressive Forms. 

Rochester, Minn., May 28, -1880. 
My Dear Boy: 

Your welcome letter of the 20th inst. was received in due time; and though 
my answer is not as prompt as usual, on account of business during the 
day and attendance at meetings in the evening, yet you have by no means 
been forgotten. You will see by the inclosed draft for ($37.50) thirty-seven 
dollars and fifty cents that your reepiest has been complied with, and $12.50 
added to the usual amount. 

Though many difficulties have to be contended with and many privations 
undergone in order to give you the advantages possessed by the well informed, 
your mother and myself are fully compensated for the self-denial that is nec- 
essary by the knowledge of your success and the proud and honorable posi- 
tion that your education is fitting you for. The untimely death of my father 
deprived me of the advantages that you are now enjoying, and it is now too 
late for me to hope ever to begin a collegiate course; but knowing the disad- 
vantages under which I have been struggling, no privation or hardship would 
be too great to suffer in order to confer upon you that which has so often been 
desired by me. And it has often been a source of comfort to know that you 
appreciate all this, and deprive yourself, without complaint, of many things 
that are enjoyed by the sons of affluence. 

Everything here is progressing as usual, and we are all anxious to wel- 
come you home when your vacation begins. Mother joins me in love to you, 

and I remain, as ever, 

Your Affectionate Father. 

LETTER TO A RELATIVE. 

Written principally in the Active Form. 

San Francisco, Cal., August 20, 1880. 
Dear Aunt: 

I have no doubt you expect every day to receive an answer to your kind 
favor of the 25th ult., which I received on the 3d inst., but wc have been so 
busy that I have not had time to reply. 

Sister Ella informed you all about the fire. The carpenters now work 
every day upon the roof, which they will soon complete. Water deluged the 
upper floors, and spoiled all the furniture upstairs and down. It also de- 
stroyed all our finest pietures; but we now make a collection of new ones to 
replace them. 



. CORRESPONDENCE. 303 

We live in one of our other houses, over on Mission street, while the men 
repair the damaged house. Cousin Sarah still lives with us, and enjoys her- 
self as well as if nothing unusual had happened. 

Papa does an extensive business now, and the times improve every day. 
He arranges to go to New York in October, and will be absent about six weeks. 

Mamma has been seriously ill ever since the fire, and her inability to ac- 
company papa when he goes East greatly disappoints her. But she slowly 
recovers, and we do all we can to hasten her convalescence. 

Please excuse me for not writing you a long letter, as we are so busy, and I 
shall do better next time. And now believe me, as ever, 

Your loving niece, 

Grace. 

THE SAME LETTER. 

Reconstructed in the Progressive and Passive Forms. 

San Francisco, Cal., August 20, 1880. 
Dear Aunt: 

You are no doubt expecting an answer to your kind favor of the 25th ult., 
which was received on the 3d inst., but we have been so busy that I have 
not had time to reply. 

You were informed all about the fire by sister Ella. The carpenters are 
now working every day upon the roof, which will soon be completed. The 
upper floors were deluged with water, and all the furniture, upstairs and 
down, was spoiled. All our finest pictures were also destroyed; bitt they are 
to be replaced by a collection of new ones which we are now making. 

We are living in one of our other houses, on Mission street, while the 
men are repairing that which was damaged. Cousin Sarah is still living with 
us, and enjoying herself as well as if nothing unusual had happened. 

Papa is now doing an extensive business, and times are improving every 
day. He is arranging to go to New York in October, and will be absent 
about six weeks. 

Mamma has been seriously ill ever since the fire, and is greatly disappointed 
at not being able to accompany papa when he goes East. But she is slowly 
recovering, and we are doing all we can to hasten her convalescence. 

Please excuse me for not writing you a long letter, as we are so busy, and 
I shall do better next time. And now believe me, as ever, 

Your loving niece, 

Grace. 

LETTER REQUESTING CORRESPONDENCE. 

Montrose, Minn., August 20, 1880. 
Miss Susan Sims: 

M'd'lle — Being desirous of commencing correspondence with a lady friend, 
and entertaining a most favorable opinion of your accomplishments, pardon 
me for requesting an answer to this, with a view to further communications in 
the future. 



304 CORRESPONDENCE. 

Hoping that no unforeseen circumstance may deprive me of the distin- 
guished favor that I have taken the liberty to ask, I remain, 
Respectfully and truly, 

Your friend, 

John Allen. 
INVITATION TO A PARTY. 

Written in the Third Person, in the usual style. 
Mr. and Mrs. Russell request the pleasure of the company of Mr. and Mrs. 
Knox at a social gathering at the residence of their daughter, Mrs. -Alexan- 
der Mitchell, south side of Seventh street, fourth door from G, South Boston, 
on Wednesday evening next, the twenty-second of February, at eight o'clock. 

ACCEPTING THE ABOVE. 

Should be sent within twenty-four hours. 
With much pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Knox accept the kind invitation of Mr 
and Mrs. Russell to be present at Mrs . Mitchell's next Wednesday evening. 

DECLINING: THE ABOVE. 

Mr. and Mrs. Knox present their compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Russell, 
with regrets that it will be impossible, on account of domestic affliction, to 
accept their kind invitation to be present at Mrs. Mitchell's next Wednesday 
evening. 

NOTE CANCELING AN ACCEPTANCE. 

Mr. and Mrs. Knox regret to say that they are very reluctantly compelled 
to forego the pleasure of being present at Mrs. Mitchell's next Wednesday 
evening, as they are expecting the arrival of friends from a distance, of which 
they have been informed since accepting Mr. and Mrs. Russell's kind invita- 
tion. 

INVITATION TO DINE. 

We shall be pleased to have Miss North dine with us to-morrow, at five 
o'clock, in company with Senator Dickinson and a few friends. 

Mr. and Mrs. Garland. 

No. 520 Van Ness Avenue. 

ACCEPTING THE ABOVE. 
It will be a source of much pleasure to dine with such distinguished com- 
pany at Mrs. Garland's. 

Very truly, 

Emma North. 
REGRET AT ABSENCE. 

Mr. Barnard regrets that he was absent from home when Mr. Sanborn 
called, and would be pleased to make an appointment for an interview. 

A REQUEST. 
Mr. Costello will please send by bearer Mr. Barker's umbrella, which was 
forgotten. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 305 

ANOTHER. 
The Librarian of the Mechanics' Institute will be kind enough to send Mr. 
E. W. Barker, by the bearer, Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times." 

E. W. Barker. 

CERTIFICATE OF PROFICIENCY. 

This is to certify that Master George P. Hope has received the full course 
of instruction in the public schools of this city; that upon thorough examina- 
tion he is found proficient in all his studies, as will appear in the accompany- 
ing report; and that he is entitled to the diploma of this department. 

Evander E. Evans, 
High School Room, Superintendent. 

Oakland, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

FORM OF RECOMMENDATION, 

Which, if deserved, can be added to the above. 
It gives me pleasure to bear testimony to Master Hope's uniformly correct 
deportment and unremitting diligence in his studies. He has frequently been 
intrusted with work that required good judgment, care, and force of charac- 
ter, and he has my most hearty recommendation to any one who may require 
the services of an industrious, accurate, and reliable young man, and at the 
same time an agreeable companion. 

Evander E. Evans, 
High School Room, Superintendent. 

Oakland, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

RECOMMENDATION . 
Mr. William Hawkins is hereby recommended to any one who may require 
his services, as a competent and skilled mechanic in the art of house and 
bridge building and in the supervision of work on extensive contracts. He 
may also be relied on as a gentleman of integrity, in whom implicit confi- 
dence can be placed. 

Benjamin Williams, 

Supt. of Public Works. 

LETTER TO ACCOMPANY A REMITTANCE. 

Sacramento, Cal., Aug. 20, 1876. 
Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co., 

New York City : 
Gentlemen — Inclosed please find sight gold draft for ($150) one hundred 
and fifty dollars, which you may convert into currency and place to my 
credit. Please acknowledge receipt. 

Respectfully and truly, 

Geo. F. Richardson. 



306 CORRESPONDENCE. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

New York City, August 30, 1876. 
Geo. F. Richardson, Esq., 

Sacramento, Cal.: 
Dear Sir — The receipt of your gold draft, at sight, for (8150) one hundred 
and fifty dollars, is hereby acknowledged. It has been converted into cur- 
rency at 11 1^, and you have been credited with the proceeds, ($166. 87i) one 
hundred and sixty-six 87^-100 dollars, for which accept our thanks. 
Respectfully and truly, 

A. S. Barnes & Co., 

. Per Goldman. 

LETTER REQUESTING A PAYMENT. 

City, August 20, 1880. 

H. W. Baxter, Esq. : 

Dear Sir — Please assist us, if possible, before next Saturday, and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Clarke & Porter. 

SECOND LETTER ASKING EOR A PAYMENT. 

City, August 20, 1880. 
H. W. Baxter, Esq.: 

Dear Sir — As your account is now overdue, a payment would greatly 
oblige, Yours truly, 

Clarke & Porter. 

REPLY TO EITHER OE THE ABOVE. 

City, August 21, 1880. 
Messrs. Clarke & Porter: 

Gentlemen— Yours of yesterday's date was received this morning, but I 
am very sorry to say that it is impossible for me to at once comply with your 
request. If you will be kind enough to grant me an extension of time till 
the first of October, it will be a great accommodation, as several parties upon 
whom I was relying for money were compelled to disappoint me. 

Hoping that you may be able to comply with my request without too much 
inconvenience, I remain, 

Yours respectfullv, 

H. W. Baxter. 

RECEIPT. 
For money paid on a special account. 
$150. Eastport, Me., August 20, 1880. 

Received of ('apt. Geo. F. Mutch ($150) one hundred and fifty dollars for 
keeping horse and buggy three months, from June 1 to August 31, including 

services of hostler. 

E. H. Wadsworth, 

Proprietor Dexter Stables. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 307 

RECEIPT. 

For money paid on account. 
$20. St. Paul, Minn., August 20, 1880. 

Received of Sampson Matthews (.$20) twenty dollars on account. 

William S. Comes. 

RECEIPT. 

In full for balance due. 
.113.75. Charlottetown, August 20, 1880. 

Received of George Milner (§13.75) thirteen 75-100 dollars, for balance of 

account, in full, to date. 

Barnard, Coombs & Co. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF SETTLEMENT OF ACCOUNT. 
In full to date. 

Sax Francisco, Gal., Aug. 20, 1880. 
I hereby acknowledge that Mr. M. J. Myers has this day settled his account 
with me, in full, of all demands to date. 

Alvin Krech. 

BANK CHECK. 

$125. San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

Nevada Bank of San Francisco: 
Pay to Enoch W. Barker, or bearer, one hundred and twenty-five dollars, 
gold. 

H. Barnard, 
PROMISSORY NOTE. 

Single, negotiable, payable to order, ivith interest from date. 
$563 75. Mankato, Minn., Aug. 20, 1880. 

Three months after date, for value received, I promise to pay to George 
A. Clarke, or order, five hundred and sixty-three 75-100 dollars, with inter- 
est from date at seven per cent. 

Emil Lautenschlager. 

PROMISSORY NOTE. 
Joint, negotiable, payable to order, witli interest after maturity. 
$275 50. New Ulm, Minn., Aug. 20, 1880. 

Thirty days after date we jointly and severally promise to pay to the order 
of James Collins two hundred seventy-five 50-100 dollars, for value received, 
with interest after maturity at ten per cent. 

E. St. J. Cox, 
A. Blanchard, 
John Richards. 



308 CORRESPONDENCE. 

PROMISSORY NOTE. 

Single, not negotiable, payable to holder only, without interest, and without grace, 

$137 25. Sacramento, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

Sixty days after date I promise to pay to Robert Purclie one hundred and 
thirty-seven 25-100 dollars, gold, for value received. 

John Bovyer. 

SIGHT DRAFT. 

Or Inland Bill of Exchange. 

$200. San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

At sight, pay to the order of Thomas Day two hundred dollars, value re- 
ceived, and charge to account of 

John H. Ray. 
To A. S. Barnes & Co., 

112 William street, New York. 

TIME DRAFT. 

Or Inland Bill of Exchange. 

$375 45. San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 20, 1880. 

Thirty days after sight, pay to William Warren, or order, three hundred 
and seventy-five 45-100 dollars, value received, and charge to account of 

John A. McDonald. 
To Bird, Perkins & Job, 

65 State street, Boston, Mass. 

FORM OF WILL. 

I, George F. Mason, of Clay Center, Clay county, State of Kansas, being 
of sound mind and memory, and in view of the uncertainty of life, do make 
publish, and declare this to be my last will and TESTAMENT; that is to say: 

First. After all legal demands agains,t my estate have been discharged, I 
give and bequeath unto my wife, Priseilla Mason, the dwelling-house and 
forty acres of land on which it is situated, now occupied by us as a home- 
stead, together with all the pictures, furniture, piano, ornaments, and other 
effects connected therewith; and also five thousand dollars cash. 

Second. I hereby also give to my daughter, Emily, one hundred and sixty 
acres of land in Sterling, Blue Earth county, Minnesota, besides all the re- 
maining cash and other property, personal and real, of every description, now 
or hereafter held in my name, except the sum of five hundred dollars, to be 
equally divided between the executors herein named. 

Third. I hereby appoint Mr. Enoch W. Barker and Mr. Wellington Jones 
executors of this my last will and testament, to be compensated as above. 

Fourth. I hereby revoke and declare void all former wills that may have 
been made by me. J 



CORRESPONDENCE. 309 

In witness whereof I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my 
seal, the twentieth day of August, eighteen hundred and eighty. 

George F. Mason, [l. s.] 
Attestation. 
The above written instrument was subscribed by the said George F. Mason 
in our presence, and acknowledged by him to each of us, and at his request 
we have signed our names as witnesses, in his presence, and in presence of 
each other. 

Leslie Lane, Clay Center. 
Charles Green, Leavenworth. 
Benjamin Squires, Pottawatomie. 

FORM OF RESIGNATION. 
If made from a desire to be relieved. 

Framingham, Mass., Aug. 20, 1880. 
To the Officers and Members 

Of the Delta Sigma Society: 
It is with sincere regret that you are asked to accept my resignation as sec- 
retary of the society, which is hereby tendered, as circumstances over which 
I have no control demand all my time and attention. 

With thanks for the many favors and courtesies extended to me while try- 
ing to serve you, I still remain, 

With much respect, 

Esther Dixon. 

FORM OF RESIGNATION AND WITHDRAWAL. 
If from dissatisfaction or other cause. 

Framingham, Mass., Aug. 20, 1880. 
To the Officers and Members 

Of the Delta Sigma Society: 
With much regret I am compelled to demand the acceptance of my resig- 
nation as secretary of this society, which is hereby tendered, and to ask that 
my name be stricken from the roll of membership. 

Respectfully, 

Esther Dixon. 

POSSESSIVE MY OR MINE. 

A foreigner writes to the New York Sun : 

I am studying English, and for that reason I pay a great deal of attention 
to the language of those with whom I happen to converse. Now the little 
possessive pronoun "my "is so often used, and, at least in my judgment, 
abused, that it begins to worry me. For example, a lady recently said to me: 
"I locked my door and went to my butcher to order my provisions. When 
I returned home I found my stove cold and my fire out; and that was lucky, 
too, for my kettle wa.s nearly empty, and it would have been ruined if my 



310 , CORRESPONDENCE. 

fire had been going. I expected my husband every minute, so I hurried to 
make my fire again and prepare my dinner. Unfortunately my butcher had 
forgotten to bring my tripe, so I gave him a piece of my mind and sent him 
back for my tripe;" and so on. 

The above extract will serve to show that the Possessive Case 
of the egotistical Pronoun is capable of being used to excess 
as well as the Nominative. But a little care is all that is neces- 
sary to avoid it. 

The original parties to a promissory note are at least two 
— the maker, or person who signs it, and the payee, or per- 
son to whom the promise is made. When a negotiable note, 
which must have the word order inserted, is transferred to a 
third or subsequent party, the payee becomes the indorser, or 
person who writes his name across the back. To indorse " in 
f ull " is to simply sign the indorsees name. To indorse "in 
blank" is to write an order on the back of the note instructing 
the promisor to pay to some third party, who must be distinctly 
named, and then sign the payee's name in full. Thus, if the 
payee of the single note, on page 307, wishes to have Mr. L. 
pay the money to Mr. E. D. B. Porter, he writes these words 
across the back, and thus transfers the instrument to Mr. Por- 
ter: " Pay to the order of E. D. B. Porter. George A. Clarke." 
Mr. Porter can then again transfer it to a fourth party, and so on. 

The original parties to a draft are three — the drawer, or 
person who issues and signs it; the drawee, or person on 
whom it is drawn, to whom it is addressed, and who is to pay 
it at maturity'; and the payee, or person to whom the payment 
is to be made. The payee becomes the indorser, as in a note. 

In order to retain a legal claim against the indorser, the 
holder of a note or a draft that is dishonored, or not paid at 
maturity, must cause it to be " protested" by a notary public, 
unless " demand," "protest," and "notice of protest" shall 
have been " waived" by indorsement of the payee or indorser, 
which should be done thus: " For value received, I hereby 
waive demand, protest, and notice of protest. George A. 
Clarke." 

Should the indorser of a note or a draft wish to be free from 
all subsequent liability, he must first write the words, " without 
recourse," and then his indorsement. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 
EXAMPLES OF SUPERSCRIPTIONS. 



311 



Messrs. Hogg, Brown d- Taylor, 
215 Washington St., 

Boston, 

Mass. 



Master Eddie Sherman, 

Care of Major E. A. Sherman, 

No. 210 Powell St., 

City. 



Mr. William Smith, 

Charlottetown, 

Prince Edward Island, 

Dominion of Canada. 



Miss Emily May Cogswell, 
Mills Seminar//, 

Alameda Co., 

Cal. 



Ut, Rev. H. B. Whipple, D. D., 

Bishop Diocese of Minn., 

St. Mary's College, 

Faribault, Minn. 



Eev. Thos. Marshall, 
Pastor Grace Church, 
St. Louis, 
Mo. 



Prof William Monk, 
Prin. Wesleyan Day School, 
Preston, 
Lancashire, Eng. 



James Welsh, 

Attorney-at-Laiv, 
25 Montgomery St., 
City. 



Mrs. S. M. Colville, 
1323 Seventh Ave., 

Brooklyn, 
Cal. 



His Excellency, 

Jiufherford B. Hayes, 

President U. S. A., 
Washington, D. C. 



312 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



ABBEEVIATIONS. 

The following words, besides many others, occur so fre- 
quently that they are generally abbreviated : 

Eng England. 

Esq Esquire. 

Etc And so forth. 

E. g Eor example. 

Ex Example. 

Ex. or X Express. 

Exp Expense. 

Ext Extra, 

F Fast. 

Fla. . / Florida. 

Feb February. 

Fri Friday. 

Ft Foot, feet. 

F. R. S Fellow of the Roy- 
al Society. 

G. B Great Britain. 

Ga Georgia. 

Geo George. 

Gen General. 

Gov Governor. 

Hon Honorable. 

Ill Illinois. 

Ind Indiana. 

Io. or la Iowa. 

I. e That is. 

Jas James. 

Jos Joseph. 

Jan January. 

Jno John. 

Kan Kansas. 

Ky Kentucky. 

L Line. 

LI Lines. 

La Louisiana. 

Lat Latitude. 

Lb Pound. 

Lon Longitude. 

Lieut Lieutenant. 

LL. D Doctor of Laws. 

£ s. d Pounds, shillings, 

pence. 



A. B Bachelor of Arts. 

A. C After Christ. 

A. D In the year of 

our Lord. 
A. L , In the year of 

light. 
A. M In the year of 

the world. 
A. M Before noon. 

A. M Master of Arts. 

Acct., ac Account. 

Ala Alabama. 

Ans. .• Answer. 

Ark Arkansas. 

B. C Before Christ. 

Bu Bushel. 

Bbl., brl Barrel. 

Cal California. 

Can Canada. 

Capt Captain. 

Chas. .* Charles. 

Col Colorado. 

Col Colonel. 

Co Company. 

Conn Connecticut. 

Co County. 

Cr Credit. 

C 0. D Collect on deliv- 
ery. 

Da Days. 

D. C District of Co- 
lumbia. 

D. D Doctor of Divin- 
ity. 

D. V God willing. 

Del Delaware. 

Dr Debtor. 

Dr Doctor. 

Do Ditto. 

Doz Dozen. 

E East. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



313 



L. S Place of the seal. 

M Meridian. 

M Thousand. 

M. D Doctor of Medi- 
cine. 

Md Maryland. 

Me Maine. 

Mon Monday. 

Mch March. 

Messrs Messieiirs. 

Mme Madame. 

Mo Missouri. 

Mich. Michigan. 

Minn Minnesota. 

Miss Mississippi. 

Mts Mountains. 

M. C Member of Con- 
gress. 

M. P Member of Par- 
liament. 

N North. 

No Number. 

Nev Nevada. 

Nov November. 

Neb Nebraska. 

N. B New Brunswick. 

N. B Take notice. 

N. C North Carolina. 

N. H New Hampshire. 

N. J New Jersey. 

N. Y New York. 

Ohio. 

0. K All correct. 

Or Oregon. 

Oz Ounce. 

0. S Old School. 

P Page. 

Pp Pages. 

P. M Postmaster. 

P. M Afternoon. 

Penn Pennsylvania. 

P. S Postscript. 

P. Postoffice. 

14 



Pres President. 

Prof Professor. 

Ph. I) Doctor of Philos- 
ophy. 

Q. E. D Which was to be 

demonstrated. 

Qr Quires. 

Qt Quart. 

E,. I Rhode Island. 

Rt Right. 

Rev Reverend. 

Reed Received. 

Robt Robert. 

S South or slow. 

Ss. or sc Namely. 

S. C South Carolina. 

Sat Saturday. 

St Saint. 

St Street. 

Sec Secretary. 

Sun Sunday. 

Supt Superintendent. 

Tenn Tennessee. 

Thos Thomas. 

Treas Treasurer. 

Tr Trustee. 

Tues Tuesday. 

Thurs Thursday. 

Tex Texas. 

U. S United States. 

U. S. A United States of 

America. 

U. S. A. United States Ar- 
my. 

U. D Under dispensa- 
tion. 

Vs Against. 

Viz Namely. 

Va Virginia. 

Vt Vermont. 

W West. 

Wm William. 

Yd Yard. 



314 CORRESPONDENCE. 

IDIOMS AND YAEIABLE WOBDS. 

Adverbial Phrases. There are many expressions in the Eng- 
lish Language that can not be resolved into separate words. 
They are chiefly Adverbial, though many are Adjective 
Elements. Do not try to separate them in Parsing — cer- 
tainly not in Analysis — but dispose of them as a whole. 
As examples of Adverbs, we may mention as follows: At 
once, to and fro, in fact, no doubt, without fail, not at all, for- 
ever and ever, over and over, now and again, once in a while, 
here and there, now and then, one at a time, two by two, for 
all that, through and through, etc.; and as Adjectives, eight 
by ten, out of the way, matter of fact, etc. 
A going, a fishing. Such expressions, though correct, should, 
if possible, be avoided as inelegant. By common usage, 
however, they have become familiar and sometimes forcible 
and expressive. In the fourth Gospel, chap. XXI., 3, 
where Simon says "I go a fishing," it would, perhaps, 
have been as well to translate it, " I am going fishing. 5 ' 
However, the a may be regarded as a Preposition, resem- 
bling at. It is, after all, a good old Saxon idiom, and 
worthy of some consideration. The same reasons make it 
just as proper to say, " Set the clock a going/' " She is 
awaking." Words like adrift have the same construction. 
Adieu, in " They bade him many adieus," is a Noun; in "Adieu, 

my country, adieu!" it is an Interjection. 
After is a Preposition in "After dinner;" in " It rained shortly 
after," it is an Adverb; in " He arrived at the station after 
the train had departed," it may be parsed as a Connective 
Adverb or Conjunction, connecting two clauses, or it may 
be called a Preposition, having " departure " (by construc- 
tion) for its Object. 
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat," 
from Milton, quoted as proper in Kerl's Shorter Course, p. 
236, is, nevertheless, incorrect. It is precisely the same 
construction as " Than him, Satan except, none higher 
sat;" or "None, except Satan, sat higher than him." See 
Eule XVII., p. 254. It should read, " Beelzebub, than who, 
Satan except, none higher sat;" for than can not be shown 



CORRESPONDENCE. , 315 

to have the nature of either a place or relation word. It is 
nothing more than a continuative Conjunction, after the 
comparative " higher." 

Best is an Adverb in " He knows best," and a Noun in " He did 
his best," and "I always procure the best." In "Jacob 
loved Joseph the best," the words " the best" may be 
parsed as an Adverbial Phrase, modifying " loved." 

Dear is an Adjective in " Dear Sir," a Noun in " My dear," and 
an Adverb in " He will pay dear for his experience." 

Don't, 'tisn't, a'n't, and similar contractions, however much 
they may be tolerated in conversation, are quite inexcusa- 
ble and even vulgar in letters or any other written compo- 
sition. Kather say, "I do not know," "It is not mine," 
" lam not doing anything," "Are you not tired?" 

Else is an Adverb in " What else did he say ?" It is an Adjec- 
tive in " Every one else did it, but I declined;" and a Con- 
junction in " He must be sick, else he would be here." 

Fall out, look up to, and all similar expressions should be 
parsed as Verbs, the Inseparable Preposition or Adverb being 
regarded as a part of the Verb, as in uplift. See p. 135. 

Half is a Noun in " Give half to your brother," an Adjective in 
"A half moon," and an Adverb in " Half asleep." 

Had better go is improper if used to designate the present or 
the future. But in " I thought that I had better go," the 
word better is an Adverb, modifying had, after which go 
is in the Infinitive Mood, according to Kule X.,^page 247. 
" You had better be quiet" ought to read, " You would do 
better to be quiet," or " You should be quiet." 

He sawed the wood short, is one of the many expressions 
that are so difficult of explanation. The best usage is to 
classify short as an Adjective, describing the sawed wood; 
for if it were an Adverb, modifying sawed, it would not 
only terminate in ly, but possess quite a different signifi- 
cation. Also, in " He tied the horse fast," dispose of fast 
in the same way, for it is equivalent to " He made the horse 
secure." If fast were an Adverb, it would indicate that he 
performed the act of tying expeditiously, which is obviously 
not intended by the speaker. 

Idioms. This term is very indefinite, and is usually a great 



316 CORRESPONDENCE, 

favorite with superficial students of Grammar. Any word 
that is found difficult to classify is disposed of, with a saga- 
cious and knowing look, as "an idiomatic word." There 
are, however, as in other languages, a few Idioms in Eng- 
lish. They may be defined as expressions whose acquired 
or secondary meaning is different from the literal or origi- 
nal signification. The principal idiomatic words in Eng- 
lish are There and It. These are supported and confirmed 
by the best scholars. There are others, however, such as 
Go and Take, that are rejected by critical writers. In the 
sentence, " There was no one there," the first word is idi- 
omatic. It merely introduces the sentence, which might 
read, "No one was there." Again, in " It began to snow," 
the first word is idiomatic and indefinite, and does not rep- 
resent any particular Antecedent as a Pronoun. The sen- 
tence might read, " The snow began to fall." But in the 
sentence, "He is going to die," the Verb "is going" is 
rather a Provincialism than an Idiom, and has no good 
authority for its use. The sentence would be more correct, 
if written " He will probably die," or " It is feared that he 
will die." 

Is being and was being are two exceptional forms of the Verb 
be in the Progressive Form. They can both be dispensed 
with, however, though they are not objectionable in such 
sentences as "The money is being counted," which is pur- 
posely written in the Passive Form in order to avoid stating 
who is counting it. Should there be no necessity for con- 
cealing this, it can take the form, " They are counting the 
money." No other Tense of the Verb be than the Present 
and Past Indicative is capable of assuming this peculiar 
form. 

Methinks is a Defective Verb, like ought, and is only used in 
the Present and Past Indicative. 

There is sometimes an Adjective, as in "The journey there was 
pleasant," in which it has the same meaning as the Adjec- 
tive Phrase " To that place." 

The dead, the wicked, and similar expressions contain Adjec- 
tives used as Nouns. Such words may properly be parsed 
as Nouns. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Abbreviations 312 

Active and Passive Forms, illustrated with Sentences, Part 1 2-45 

Sentences with Verb "be" 2, 3 

Sentences with Verb " been " 4, 5 

Sentences with Verb " was " and "were " 6, 7 

Sentences with Verb " is " and " are " 8, 9 

Sentences with Pronouns 10, 11 

Sentences with miscellaneous Verbs 12, 13, 28-31 

Sentences with Irregular Verbs 14, 15 

Sentences with Intransitive Verbs 16, 17, 38-43 

Sentences with Possessive Case 18, 19 

Sentences with Interrogative form 20, 21 

Sentences with Compound Subjects 22, 23, 26, 27 

Sentences with Compound Objects 24, 25 

Sentences with Indicative Tenses 32-35 

Sentences with Potential Tenses 36, 37 

Sentences with Inseparable Prepositions 44, 45 

Active and Progressive Forms 46-53 

Synopsis of 54-62 

Active, Passive, Progressive, and Emphatic Forms '. . . . 63, 64 

Sentences with 63, 64 

Active Voice defined 112 

Active Form 113 

Adjectives 130 

Compared 131, 132 

Parsing of 146, 152 

Adjective Pronouns 130 

Demonstrative 130 

Distributive 130 

Indefinite 130 

Numeral 130 

Adverbs 133 

Classified 134 

List of 136 

Parsing of 147, 150 



318 INDEX. 

Page. 

Analysis, Part IV 193 

Simple Sentences 196, 210 

Compound Sentences 214 

Complex Sentences 215 

Mixed Sentences 216, 222 

Miscellaneous Sentences 225 

Formulas for 230 

Antecedent 127 

Apposition 124 

Articles 132 

Attributes 133 

Auxiliary Verbs Ill 

"Be," Conjugation of 189 

Sentences with, same Case 91, 92 

Sentences with, absolute 93, 94 

Emphatic Form of 115 

"But," two uses of 139 

Case 121 

Nominative 122 

Objective 122, 123 

Same Case 122 

Changes Orthography 122 

Independent 124 

Sentences in Possessive 103, 104 

Sentences, substitute for Possessive 105 

Check on bank, form of 307 

Clauses, Co-ordinate and Subordinate 205 

Common and Progressive Forms 46-53 

Synopsis of ... , 54-62 

Common Form 113 

Common Nouns 120 

Comparison of Adjectives : 131, 132 

Compound Relatives 128 

Comparative Degree 131 

Conjugation 189-192 

Conjunctions 139 

Copulative 139 

Disjunctive 139 

Correlative 140 

Connective 140 

Continuative 140 

Distributive 140 

Adversative 140 



INDEX. 319 

Conjunctions— Continued. Page. 

Classification of , 141 

Parsing of 149, 152 

Correspondence, Part VI 285 

Declension of Nouns 125 

Declension of Personal Pronouns 126 

Defective Verbs Ill 

Degrees of Comparison 132 

Demonstrative Pronouns 130 

Distributive Pronouns 130 

Draft, sight and time 308 

Emphatic Form 114 

Pule for Emphatic 115 

Except 139 

Forms of Verbs 112-114 

Forms of Sentences 2-109 

Forms of business documents 290 

Gender \ 121 

Genitive Case 122 

Idioms and Variable Words 314 

Imperative Mood 119 

Incomparable Adjectives : 132 

Indefinite Adjective Pronouns 130 

Independent Case 124 

Indicative Mood 118 

Indicative compared with Subjunctive 118 

Infinitives 118 

Sign " to " suppressed, sentences 89, 90 

Infinitive Mood 118 

Infinitives with superfluous Pronoun "it" 95, 96 

Infinitive Phrases 209 

Infinitive Phrases, in Objective and Nominative, sentences with. ... 97, 98 

Inseparable Prepositions 135 

Intransitive Verbs . Ill 

Interrogative Pronouns 129 

Interjections 142 

Parsing of ' 149, 152 

Irregular Verbs HI 

" It, "superfluous, with Infinitive, sentences 95, 96 

Letter-writing 286 

Letters, how to write 286 



320 INDEX. 

Page. 

Letter from consignee, Active Form 289 

From consignee, Passive Form 290 

From consignor, Active Form 290 

From consignor, Passive Form 291 

Applying for position, Active Form • 291 

Applying for position, Passive Form ; . . 292 

Of introduction 292-294 

Requesting favor, Active Form 294 

Requesting favor, Passive Form 295 

Requesting information 295 

Replying to same , 295 

Responding to advertisement . . . . 296 

Replying to the same 296 

Ordering merchandise 296 

Replying to the same 297 

Ordering special article 297 

Of inquiry 298 

Replying to same 298 

Of inquiry 298 

Replying to same, Active Form 299 

Replying to same, Passive Form 299 

To father, Active Form 300 

To father, Passive Form 301 

Replying to same, Active Form 301 

Replying to same, Passive Form 302 

To a relative, Active Form 302 

To a relative, Passive Form 303 

Requesting correspondence 303 

Of invitation and reply 304 

Of request 304 

Of regret 304 

Certifying to a fact 305 

Of recommendation 305 

With remittance 305 

Of acknowledgment 306 

Requesting payment 306 

Replying to same 306 

Of resignation 309 

Moods denned 117, 118 

" My," abuse of 309 

Nouns must precede Pronouns 120 

Common 120 

Proper 120 



(INDEX. 321 

Nouns — Continued. Page. 

Abstract 120 

Collective 120 

Of Multitude 120 

Characteristics, four 121 

Declension of 125 

Parsing of 144, 151 

Note, promissory, forms of 307, 308 

Number 121 

Forms 119, 274 

Numeral Adjectives 130 

Objective after " be " 123 

With " of " for Possessive 123 

"Only" 139 

"Or," alternative 139 

Explanatory 139 

Orthography, Part V 271 

Of Person '. 119 

Of Number 119 

Changed by Case 122 

Of Possessive 125 

Ownership and Possession 106, 107 

Parsing, Part III 156 

Exercises 143, 157-181 

Formula for Verbs 143, 150 

Formula for Nouns 144, 151 

Formula for Pronouns , 145, 151 

Formula for Adjectives 146, 152 

Formula for Adverbs -. 147, 150 

Formula for Prepositions 148, 152 

Formula for Conjunctions 149, 152 

Formula for Interjections 149, 152 

Participles as Nouns 99, 100, 119 

As Adjectives " 101, 102, 119 

Parts of Speech, Part II 110 

Passive Voice defined 112 

Passive Form 112, 113 

Passive, Rule for 115 

Person defined 121 

Forms 119 

Personal Pronouns defined 121 

Declension of 126 

Perfect Tenses ., 117 

Phrases, Infinitives 209 



322 INDEX. 

Page. 

Phrases, Prepositional 209 

Place-words 135 

Plural Form 121, 125 

Possession not ownership 106, 107, 123 

Possessive Case, Singular 103 

Plural 104 

Substitute for 105 

Orthography of 125 

Of Common Nouns not used 125 

Positive Degree 131 

Potential Mood 118 

Prepositions 135 

Must precede Relative ... 128 

Inseparable 135 

List of 137 

Compound 138 

Parsing of 148, 152 

Prepositional Phrase 135 

Prepositional Phrases 209 

Punctuation, rules for 195, 231 

Characters used in 235 

Predicates, Simple and Compound 204 

Predicate- Verb 209 

Principal Verbs Ill 

Principal Parts of Verbs Ill 

Promissory note, form of 308 

Profane language 142 

Progressive Form 114 

Rule for 115 

Pronouns 120 

Four characteristics 121 

Personal, Reflexive, sentences 108, 109 

Relative, Simple, in sentences , 65-78 

Sentences with two Nominatives 65, 66 

Sentences with two Objectives 67, 68 

Sentences with Nominative and Objective 69, 70 

Sentences with Objective and Nominative 71, 72 

Sentences with Promiscuous Cases 73, 74 

Sentences with Objective after Preposition 75, 76 

Sentences with " that " and " as " . . 77, 78 

Relative, Compound 79-84 

Sentences with " what " 79-81 

Sentences with "whatever," etc 82-84 

Personal r. 121 

Relative 127 



INDEX. 323 

Pronouns — Continued. Page. 

Interrogative 129 

Adjective 130 

Parsing of 145, 151 

Proper Nouns 120 

Propositions and Clauses 205 

Receipt, form of 306, 307 

Redundant Verbs Ill 

Reflexive Pronouns, sentences 108, 109 

Declension 126 

Regular Verbs Ill 

Relative Pronouns, sentences 65-84 

Defined 127 

Relation-words 135 

Resignation, form of , 309 

Rule for Passive 115 

Rule for Progressive 115 

Rule for Emphatic 115 

Same Case 91, 122 

Sentences, transposed, Part 1 2, 64 

To be corrected or changed 84-88 

With " to " suppressed 89, 90 

" Same Case " with " be " 91, 92 

With " be, ; ' absolute 93, 94 

With superfluous Pronoun "it " 95, 96 

With Infinitive Phrases 97, 98 

With Participles as Nouns 99, 100 

With Possessive Case, Singular . . . . , 103 

With Possessive Case, Plural ". 104 

With substitute for Possessive 105 

With possession shown 106 

With ownership shown 107 

With Reflexive Personal Pronouns 108, 109 

Analyzed 196-230 

Material for 199-203 

Settlement, form of 307 

" Shall " and "will " 117 

Simple Relatives 127 

Singular 121 

Speech, Parts of, Part II 110 

Subjects, Simple and Compound 204 

Subject-Nominative 208 

Subjunctive Mood 118 

Superlative Degree 131 



324 INDEX. 

Page. 

Superscription of a letter 288, 310 

Superscriptions, examples of 311 

Synopsis 54_62, 186 

Syntax, Part IV 236 

Rules 237-270 

False 237-270 

Tenses 116 

Present, artificial 117 

Past and Future, natural 1.17 

Perfect 117 

" That " preferred^*) " who " and "which " 127 

''Thou " and " you " 126 

Time, divisions of 116 

"To," the Infinitive sign 119 

" To," the Preposition 119 

"To," omitted after Verbs 119 

Transitive Verbs , Ill 

Ultra-Comparative Degree 131 

Variable Words and Idioms 314 

Verbs, Definitions 111-119 

Principal and Auxiliary Ill 

Principal Parts Ill 

Defective and Redundant Ill 

Regular and Irregular Ill 

Transitive and Intransitive Ill, 112 

Active and Passive Voice 112 

Passive Form 112 

Time and Tense 116 

Tenses, or divisions of time ... 116, 117 

Moods defined 118 

Having " to " omitted 119 

Irregular, list of 153-155 

Parsing of 143-150, 182-185 

Voice, Active and Passive 112 

Rules for 115 

" What " 129 

" Whatever," etc 129 

' < Which " 129 

" Who " 129 

"Will" and "shall" 117 

Wills, form of 308 

Words of variable meaning and Idioms 314 



